The environment and autoimmune thyroid diseases.

Genetic factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) and it has been calculated that 80% of the susceptibility to develop Graves' disease is attributable to genes. The concordance rate for AITD among monozygotic twins is, however, well below 1 and environmental factors thus must play an important role. We have attempted to carry out a comprehensive review of all the environmental and hormonal risk factors thought to bring about AITD in genetically predisposed individuals. Low birth weight, iodine excess and deficiency, selenium deficiency, parity, oral contraceptive use, reproductive span, fetal microchimerism, stress, seasonal variation, allergy, smoking, radiation damage to the thyroid gland, viral and bacterial infections all play a role in the development of autoimmune thyroid disorders. The use of certain drugs (lithium, interferon-alpha, Campath-1H) also increases the risk of the development of autoimmunity against the thyroid gland. Further research is warranted into the importance of fetal microchimerism and of viral infections capable of mounting an endogenous interferon-alpha response.

[1]  B. Wenzel,et al.  Bacterial virulence antigens and the pathogenesis of autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD) , 2009, Experimental and clinical endocrinology & diabetes : official journal, German Society of Endocrinology [and] German Diabetes Association.

[2]  W. Wiersinga Environmental factors in autoimmune thyroid disease. , 2009, Experimental and clinical endocrinology & diabetes : official journal, German Society of Endocrinology [and] German Diabetes Association.

[3]  K. Badenhoop Intrathyroidal microchimerism in Graves' disease or Hashimoto's thyroiditis: regulation of tolerance or alloimmunity by fetal-maternal immune interactions? , 2004, European journal of endocrinology.

[4]  T. Evans,et al.  Thyroid disease. , 2003, Primary care.

[5]  D. Petitti Combination Estrogen–Progestin Oral Contraceptives , 2003 .

[6]  R. Pedotti,et al.  Involvement of both 'allergic' and 'autoimmune' mechanisms in EAE, MS and other autoimmune diseases. , 2003, Trends in immunology.

[7]  W. Wiersinga,et al.  Risk factors for and prevalence of thyroid disorders in a cross‐sectional study among healthy female relatives of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease , 2003, Clinical endocrinology.

[8]  A Graham Pockley,et al.  Heat shock proteins as regulators of the immune response , 2003, The Lancet.

[9]  K. Beagley,et al.  Regulation of innate and adaptive immunity by the female sex hormones oestradiol and progesterone. , 2003, FEMS immunology and medical microbiology.

[10]  R. Hohlfeld,et al.  Molecular mimicry in multiple sclerosis. , 2003, The New England journal of medicine.

[11]  S. Gough,et al.  The genetics of autoimmune endocrine disease , 2003, Clinical endocrinology.

[12]  M. Widdowson,et al.  Laboratory surveillance of bacterial gastroenteric pathogens in The Netherlands, 1991–2001 , 2003, Epidemiology and Infection.

[13]  R. Hoermann,et al.  Impact of smoking on the response to treatment of thyroid associated ophthalmopathy , 2003, The British journal of ophthalmology.

[14]  P. Laurberg,et al.  Interferon-alpha and autoimmune thyroid disease. , 2003, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[15]  D. Middleton,et al.  Enteric illness in Ontario, Canada, from 1997 to 2001. , 2003, Journal of food protection.

[16]  Submitting articles to the BMJ , 2003, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[17]  W. Wiersinga,et al.  Increased prevalence of antibodies to enteropathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica virulence proteins in relatives of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease , 2003, Clinical and experimental immunology.

[18]  M. Gething,et al.  Association of stress proteins with autoantigens: a possible mechanism for triggering autoimmunity? , 2003, Clinical and experimental immunology.

[19]  A. Miyauchi,et al.  The relationship of psychological factors to the prognosis of hyperthyroidism in antithyroid drug‐treated patients with Graves’ disease , 2003, Clinical endocrinology.

[20]  A. Hämäläinen,et al.  Enterovirus infections as a risk factor for type I diabetes: virus analyses in a dietary intervention trial , 2003, Clinical and experimental immunology.

[21]  C. Eheman,et al.  Autoimmune thyroid disease associated with environmental thyroidal irradiation. , 2003, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[22]  L. Duntas,et al.  Effects of a six month treatment with selenomethionine in patients with autoimmune thyroiditis. , 2003, European journal of endocrinology.

[23]  K. Khosrotehrani,et al.  Fetal cell microchimerism: helpful or harmful to the parous woman? , 2003, Current opinion in obstetrics & gynecology.

[24]  M. Rottem Chronic urticaria and autoimmune thyroid disease: is there a link? , 2003, Autoimmunity reviews.

[25]  J. Arnaud,et al.  Association of selenium with thyroid volume and echostructure in 35- to 60-year-old French adults. , 2003, European journal of endocrinology.

[26]  B. Maras,et al.  123I-Interleukin-2: biochemical characterization and in vivo use for imaging autoimmune diseases , 2003 .

[27]  S. Evans Commentary: Matched cohorts can be useful. , 2003, BMJ.

[28]  T. Jørgensen,et al.  Thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin autoantibodies in a large survey of populations with mild and moderate iodine deficiency , 2003, Clinical endocrinology.

[29]  Å. Lernmark,et al.  Animal models of endocrine/organ-specific autoimmune diseases: do they really help us to understand human autoimmunity? , 2002, Springer Seminars in Immunopathology.

[30]  G. Eisenbarth,et al.  Genetics and environmental factors in endocrine/organ-specific autoimmunity: have there been any major advances? , 2002, Springer Seminars in Immunopathology.

[31]  S. Pearce,et al.  The genetics of autoimmune thyroid disease. , 2002, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[32]  A. Madec,et al.  Reduction of the risk of relapse after withdrawal of medical therapy for Graves' disease. , 2002, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[33]  F. Mandelli,et al.  How long can we give interleukin-2? Clinical and immunological evaluation of AML patients after 10 or more years of IL2 administration , 2002, Leukemia.

[34]  Arne Svejgaard,et al.  A functional and structural basis for TCR cross-reactivity in multiple sclerosis , 2002, Nature Immunology.

[35]  Josef Köhrle,et al.  The impact of iron and selenium deficiencies on iodine and thyroid metabolism: biochemistry and relevance to public health. , 2002, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[36]  J. Bach,et al.  The effect of infections on susceptibility to autoimmune and allergic diseases. , 2002, The New England journal of medicine.

[37]  P. Unger,et al.  Intrathyroidal fetal microchimerism in Graves' disease. , 2002, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[38]  N. Kamel,et al.  Relationship between thyroid autoimmunity and Yersinia enterocolitica antibodies. , 2002, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[39]  T. Jørgensen,et al.  Low goitre prevalence among users of oral contraceptives in a population sample of 3712 women , 2002, Clinical endocrinology.

[40]  G. Chrousos,et al.  Stress Hormones, Proinflammatory and Antiinflammatory Cytokines, and Autoimmunity , 2002, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[41]  C. Osmond,et al.  Is birthweight associated with thyroid autoimmunity? A study in twins. , 2002, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[42]  Johannes W. Dietrich,et al.  Selenium supplementation in patients with autoimmune thyroiditis decreases thyroid peroxidase antibodies concentrations. , 2002, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[43]  P. Vestergaard Smoking and thyroid disorders--a meta-analysis. , 2002, European journal of endocrinology.

[44]  M. Prummel,et al.  Smoking and disease severity are independent determinants of serum adhesion molecule levels in Graves’ ophthalmopathy , 2002, Clinical and experimental immunology.

[45]  S. Drača Is Pregnancy a Model How We Should Control Some Autoimmune Diseases? , 2002, Autoimmunity.

[46]  O. Bruno,et al.  Development of Graves' hyperthyroidism after radioiodine treatment for a toxic nodule: is the hyperthyroidism always triggered by 1311 therapy? , 2001, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[47]  Clive Osmond,et al.  Effects of prenatal exposure to the Dutch famine on adult disease in later life: an overview , 2001, Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology.

[48]  A. Weetman Determinants of autoimmune thyroid disease , 2001, Nature Immunology.

[49]  T. Almdal,et al.  Thyroid-associated orbitopathy developed during hormone replacement therapy. , 2001, Acta ophthalmologica Scandinavica.

[50]  T. Kouki,et al.  Remission and recurrence of hyperthyroid Graves' disease during and after methimazole treatment when assessed by IgE and interleukin 13. , 2001, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[51]  B. Walker,et al.  Hepatitis C virus infection. , 2001, The New England journal of medicine.

[52]  C. Dayan Stressful life events and Graves' disease revisited★ , 2001, Clinical endocrinology.

[53]  U. Roggenbuck,et al.  Transient stimulatory effects on pituitary-thyroid axis in patients treated with interleukin-2. , 2001, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[54]  E. Nobre,et al.  Relationship between the number and impact of stressful life events and the onset of Graves' disease and toxic nodular goitre★ , 2001, Clinical endocrinology.

[55]  C. Goodnow Pathways for self-tolerance and the treatment of autoimmune diseases , 2001, The Lancet.

[56]  J. Parkin,et al.  An overview of the immune system , 2001, The Lancet.

[57]  M. Klintschar,et al.  Evidence of fetal microchimerism in Hashimoto's thyroiditis. , 2001, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[58]  E. Sternberg,et al.  Neuroendocrine regulation of autoimmune/inflammatory disease. , 2001, The Journal of endocrinology.

[59]  C. Biron Interferons α and β as Immune Regulators—A New Look , 2001 .

[60]  K. Markou,et al.  Iodine-Induced hypothyroidism. , 2001, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[61]  H. Drexhage,et al.  Iodine and thyroid autoimmune disease in animal models. , 2001, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[62]  E. Roti,et al.  Iodine excess and hyperthyroidism. , 2001, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[63]  D. Glinoer,et al.  Effects of l-thyroxine administration, TSH-receptor antibodies and smoking on the risk of recurrence in Graves' hyperthyroidism treated with antithyroid drugs: a double-blind prospective randomized study. , 2001, European journal of endocrinology.

[64]  S. Chatzipanagiotou,et al.  Prevalence of Yersinia plasmid-encoded outer protein (Yop) class-specific antibodies in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis. , 2001, Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[65]  P. Nafstad,et al.  Relation between occurrence of type 1 diabetes and asthma , 2001, The Lancet.

[66]  L. Hegedüs,et al.  Evidence for a major role of heredity in Graves' disease: a population-based study of two Danish twin cohorts. , 2001, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[67]  T. Jørgensen,et al.  Thyroid disorders in mild iodine deficiency. , 2000, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[68]  J. Farrar,et al.  Type I interferons and T helper development. , 2000, Immunology today.

[69]  D. Green,et al.  Abnormalities of the thyroid in survivors of Hodgkin's disease: data from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. , 2000, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[70]  J. Ilonen,et al.  Enterovirus infection as a risk factor for beta-cell autoimmunity in a prospectively observed birth cohort: the Finnish Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Study. , 2000, Diabetes.

[71]  L. Hegedüs,et al.  Low birth weight is not associated with clinically overt thyroid disease: a population based twin case‐control study , 2000, Clinical endocrinology.

[72]  M. Rayman,et al.  The importance of selenium to human health , 2000, The Lancet.

[73]  A. Like,et al.  Susceptibility to diabetes is widely distributed in normal class IIu haplotype rats , 2000, Diabetologia.

[74]  J. Weill,et al.  Increased level of interferon-alpha in blood of patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: relationship with coxsackievirus B infection. , 2000, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[75]  M. Knip,et al.  Enterovirus RNA in serum is a risk factor for beta‐cell autoimmunity and clinical type 1 diabetes: A prospective study , 2000, Journal of medical virology.

[76]  L. Chiovato,et al.  The genetics of Hashimoto's disease. , 2000, Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America.

[77]  C. Marcocci,et al.  Management of Graves' ophthalmopathy: reality and perspectives. , 2000, Endocrine reviews.

[78]  C Wilson,et al.  HLA molecules, bacteria and autoimmunity. , 2000, Journal of medical microbiology.

[79]  P. Galan,et al.  Determinants of thyroid volume in healthy French adults participating in the SU.VI.MAX cohort , 2000, Clinical endocrinology.

[80]  R. Cotter,et al.  Molecular mimicry mediated by MHC class Ib molecules after infection with Gram-negative pathogens , 2000, Nature Medicine.

[81]  R. Inman,et al.  Molecular mimicry and autoimmunity. , 1999, The New England journal of medicine.

[82]  S. Gough The immunogenetics of Graves' disease , 1999 .

[83]  C Osmond,et al.  Growth in utero and during childhood among women who develop coronary heart disease: longitudinal study , 1999, BMJ.

[84]  A. Compston,et al.  Pulsed monoclonal antibody treatment and autoimmune thyroid disease in multiple sclerosis , 1999, The Lancet.

[85]  G. Chrousos,et al.  Stress Hormones, Th1/Th2 patterns, Pro/Anti-inflammatory Cytokines and Susceptibility to Disease , 1999, Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism.

[86]  Y. Nakamura,et al.  A possible role of immunoglobulin E in patients with hyperthyroid Graves' disease. , 1999, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[87]  F. Trimarchi,et al.  Post-Chernobyl increased prevalence of humoral thyroid autoimmunity in children and adolescents from a moderately iodine-deficient area in Russia. , 1999, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[88]  T. Smith,et al.  The effect of cigarette smoke constituents on the expression of HLA-DR in orbital fibroblasts derived from patients with Graves ophthalmopathy. , 1999, Ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[89]  E. Bottone Yersinia enterocolitica: overview and epidemiologic correlates. , 1999, Microbes and infection.

[90]  M. Kazatchkine,et al.  Delayed occurrence of Graves' disease after immune restoration with HAART , 1998, The Lancet.

[91]  M. Nardi,et al.  Cigarette Smoking and Treatment Outcomes in Graves Ophthalmopathy , 1998, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[92]  Luca Chiovato,et al.  Prevalence of thyroid autoantibodies in children and adolescents from Belarus exposed to the Chernobyl radioactive fallout , 1998, The Lancet.

[93]  H. Lee,et al.  Prevalence of human foamy virus-related sequences in the Korean population. , 1998, Journal of biomedical science.

[94]  G. Bleijenberg,et al.  Yersinia enterocolitica and the chronic fatigue syndrome. , 1998, The Journal of infection.

[95]  P. Laurberg,et al.  Iodine intake and the pattern of thyroid disorders: a comparative epidemiological study of thyroid abnormalities in the elderly in Iceland and in Jutland, Denmark. , 1998, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[96]  E. Donny,et al.  The effects of nicotine on the immune system , 1998, Psychoneuroendocrinology.

[97]  Vanderpump,et al.  The prevalence of hyperprolactinaemia and association with markers of autoimmune thyroid disease in survivors of the Whickham Survey cohort , 1998, Clinical endocrinology.

[98]  P. Yeo,et al.  Interferon-α Induced Thyroid Dysfunction: Three Clinical Presentations and a Review of the Literature , 1997 .

[99]  M. Prummel,et al.  Anti‐heat shock protein (hsp)72 antibodies are present in patients with Graves' disease (GD) and in smoking control subjects , 1997, Clinical and experimental immunology.

[100]  L. Hegedüs,et al.  Thyrotropin Receptor Antibodies and Graves’ Disease, a Side-Effect of 131I Treatment in Patients with Nontoxic Goiter , 1997 .

[101]  F. Corstens,et al.  Autoimmune hyperthyroidism occurring late after radioiodine treatment for volume reduction of large multinodular goiters. , 1997, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[102]  L. Hofbauer,et al.  Soluble interleukin-1 receptor antagonist serum levels in smokers and nonsmokers with Graves' ophthalmopathy undergoing orbital radiotherapy. , 1997, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[103]  J. Klein,et al.  Local Hormone Networks and Intestinal T Cell Homeostasis , 1997, Science.

[104]  Fergus Shanahan,et al.  A gut reaction: lymphoepithelial communication in the intestine. , 1997, Science.

[105]  I. Turktas,et al.  The association of chronic urticaria and angioedema with autoimmune thyroiditis , 1997, International journal of dermatology.

[106]  Y. Shoenfeld,et al.  Smoking and Immunity: an Additional Player in the Mosaic of Autoimmunity , 1997, Scandinavian journal of immunology.

[107]  S. Benvenga Benzodiazepine and remission of Graves' disease. , 1996, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[108]  R. Ziegler,et al.  Smoking and endocrine ophthalmopathy: impact of smoking severity and current vs lifetime cigarette consumption , 1996, Clinical endocrinology.

[109]  T. Okanoue,et al.  Side effects of high-dose interferon therapy for chronic hepatitis C. , 1996, Journal of hepatology.

[110]  J. Peterson,et al.  Yersinia enterocolitica envelope proteins that are crossreactive with the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) also have B-cell mitogenic activity. , 1996, Journal of autoimmunity.

[111]  N. Amino,et al.  Onset of Graves' thyrotoxicosis after an attack of allergic rhinitis. , 1996, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[112]  G. Daniels,et al.  Chronic autoimmune thyroiditis. , 1996, The New England journal of medicine.

[113]  J. Marinković,et al.  Stressful life events in the pathogenesis of Graves' disease. , 1996, European journal of endocrinology.

[114]  A. Pinchera,et al.  Stressful life events and Graves' disease. , 1996, European journal of endocrinology.

[115]  A. Roberts,et al.  Selenium deficiency and miscarriage: a possible link? , 1996, British journal of obstetrics and gynaecology.

[116]  H. Besedovsky,et al.  Immune-neuro-endocrine interactions: facts and hypotheses. , 1996, Endocrine reviews.

[117]  G. Weil,et al.  Male fetal progenitor cells persist in maternal blood for as long as 27 years postpartum. , 1996, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[118]  T. Vial,et al.  Immune-mediated side-effects of cytokines in humans. , 1995, Toxicology.

[119]  J. French,et al.  The incidence of thyroid disorders in the community: a twenty‐year follow‐up of the Whickham Survey , 1995, Clinical endocrinology.

[120]  L. Kuller,et al.  Prevalence of thyroid antibodies among healthy middle-aged women. Findings from the thyroid study in healthy women. , 1995, Annals of epidemiology.

[121]  M. Beck,et al.  Rapid genomic evolution of a non-virulent Coxsackievirus B3 in selenium-deficient mice results in selection of identical virulent isolates , 1995, Nature Medicine.

[122]  S. Akiba,et al.  Prevalence rate of thyroid diseases among autopsy cases of the atomic bomb survivors in Hiroshima, 1951-1985. , 1995, Radiation research.

[123]  A. Kung Life events, daily stresses and coping in patients with Graves' disease , 1995, Clinical endocrinology.

[124]  W. Wiersinga,et al.  Two cases of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis successfully treated with a short course of antithyroid drugs while amiodarone was continued. , 1994, British heart journal.

[125]  S. Nagataki,et al.  Thyroid diseases among atomic bomb survivors in Nagasaki. , 1994, JAMA.

[126]  Sydney A. Westphai,et al.  Seasonal variation in the diagnosis of Graves' disease , 1994 .

[127]  G. Varigos,et al.  IL‐4 production is increased in cigarette smokers , 1994, Clinical and experimental immunology.

[128]  A. Weetman,et al.  Stimulation of extraocular muscle fibroblasts by cytokines and hypoxia: possible role in thyroid‐associated ophthalmopathy , 1994, Clinical endocrinology.

[129]  K. Kodama,et al.  Autoantibodies and immunoglobulins among atomic bomb survivors. , 1993, Radiation research.

[130]  Y. Iwatani,et al.  Recurrence of thyrotoxicosis after attack of allergic rhinitis in patients with Graves' disease. , 1993, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[131]  R. D. Lloyd,et al.  A cohort study of thyroid disease in relation to fallout from nuclear weapons testing. , 1993, JAMA.

[132]  A. Reunanen,et al.  Smoking and risk of rheumatoid arthritis. , 1993, The Journal of rheumatology.

[133]  M. Prummel,et al.  Smoking and Risk of Gravesʼ Disease , 1993 .

[134]  G. Fava,et al.  Life events in the pathogenesis of Graves' disease. A controlled study. , 1993, Acta endocrinologica.

[135]  D. Barker,et al.  Fetal growth and autoimmune thyroid disease. , 1993, The Quarterly journal of medicine.

[136]  H. Johnsen,et al.  Autoimmune hypothyroidism and granulocyte‐macrophage colony‐stimulating factor , 1993, European journal of haematology.

[137]  F. Karlsson,et al.  Graves' disease, endocrine ophthalmopathy and smoking. , 1993, Acta endocrinologica.

[138]  C. Bengtsson,et al.  Smoking — A risk factor for hypothyroidism , 1993, Journal of endocrinological investigation.

[139]  Y. Tomer,et al.  Infection, thyroid disease, and autoimmunity. , 1993, Endocrine reviews.

[140]  A. Howell,et al.  Risk of thyroid dysfunction during treatment with G-CSF , 1992, The Lancet.

[141]  E. Rosen,et al.  Immunoreactivity to Yersinia enterocolitica antigens in patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. , 1992, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[142]  M. Prummel,et al.  Soluble IL‐2 receptor levels in patients with Graves’ophthalmopathy , 1992, Clinical and experimental immunology.

[143]  Marlsol Tellez,et al.  Graves’ ophthalmopathy in relation to cigarette smoking and ethnic origin , 1992, Clinical endocrinology.

[144]  S. Wallenstein,et al.  A prospective study of lymphocyte-initiated immunosuppression in normal pregnancy: evidence of a T-cell etiology for postpartum thyroid dysfunction. , 1992, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[145]  J. Woodward,et al.  Yersinia enterocolitica produces superantigenic activity. , 1992, Journal of immunology.

[146]  W. Wiersinga,et al.  Incidence, predictability, and pathogenesis of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis and hypothyroidism. , 1991, The American journal of medicine.

[147]  H. Drexhage,et al.  Reversible thyroid dysfunction during treatment with GM-CSF , 1991, The Lancet.

[148]  S. Hancock,et al.  Thyroid diseases after treatment of Hodgkin's disease. , 1991, The New England journal of medicine.

[149]  F. Martinez,et al.  Increased serum IgE and increased prevalence of eosinophilia in 9-year-old children of smoking parents. , 1990, The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology.

[150]  S. Gortmaker,et al.  Maternal smoking and childhood asthma. , 1990, Pediatrics.

[151]  B. Butland,et al.  THE INFLUENCE OF PREGNANCY AND REPRODUCTIVE SPAN ON THE OCCURRENCE OF AUTOIMMUNE THYROIDITIS , 1990, Clinical endocrinology.

[152]  C. Marcocci,et al.  More on smoking habits and Graves’ ophthalmopathy , 1989, Journal of endocrinological investigation.

[153]  A. Leznoff,et al.  Syndrome of idiopathic chronic urticaria and angioedema with thyroid autoimmunity: a study of 90 patients. , 1989, The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology.

[154]  S. Borriello,et al.  Thyrotrophin (TSH)-binding proteins in bacteria and their cross-reaction with autoantibodies against the human TSH receptor. , 1989, The Journal of endocrinology.

[155]  N. Amino,et al.  Incidences of antibodies to Yersinia enterocolitica: high incidence of serotype O5 in autoimmune thyroid diseases in Japan. , 1989, Endocrinologia japonica.

[156]  W. McKenna,et al.  Amiodarone and thyroid autoimmunity in the United Kingdom. , 1988, BMJ.

[157]  M. Atkins,et al.  Hypothyroidism after treatment with interleukin-2 and lymphokine-activated killer cells. , 1988, The New England journal of medicine.

[158]  A. Weetman,et al.  Graves' disease , 1988 .

[159]  M. Nelson,et al.  IODINE IN MILK AND THE INCIDENCE OF THYROTOXICOSIS IN ENGLAND , 1988, Clinical endocrinology.

[160]  K. Asplund,et al.  Is endocrine ophthalmopathy related to smoking? , 1987, British medical journal.

[161]  S. Nagataki,et al.  Serum TSH, thyroglobulin, and thyroidal disorders in atomic bomb survivors exposed in youth: 30-year follow-up study. , 1987, Journal of nuclear medicine : official publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine.

[162]  T. Tötterman,et al.  Thyroid autoimmunity in patients on long term therapy with leukocyte-derived interferon. , 1986, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[163]  L. Harrison,et al.  Thyrotrophin (TSH) binding sites on Yersinia enterocolitica recognized by immunoglobulins from humans with Graves' disease. , 1986, Clinical and experimental immunology.

[164]  M. L. Santos,et al.  Antithyroid antibodies as an early marker for thyroid disease induced by amiodarone. , 1986, British medical journal.

[165]  K. Pettingale,et al.  RECOMBINANT GAMMA INTERFERON AND AUTOIMMUNE THYROID DISEASE , 1985, The Lancet.

[166]  D. Barker,et al.  Seasonality of thyrotoxicosis. , 1985, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[167]  D. Jacobson,et al.  Graves' disease with ophthalmopathy following radiotherapy for Hodgkin's disease. , 1984, The American journal of the medical sciences.

[168]  W. Wiersinga,et al.  ASSOCIATION BETWEEN AUTOIMMUNE THYROID DISEASE, ATOPY, AND URTICARIA? , 1984, The Lancet.

[169]  D. Kasper,et al.  Demonstration of a saturable binding site for thyrotropin in Yersinia enterocolitica. , 1983, Science.

[170]  L. Braverman,et al.  Ophthalmopathy after neck irradiation therapy for Hodgkin's disease. , 1979, Cancer treatment reports.

[171]  K. Chung,et al.  AMIODARONE AND THE THYROID , 1979, The Lancet.

[172]  C. Kay,et al.  Incidence of thyroid disease associated with oral contraceptives. , 1978, British medical journal.

[173]  O. Clemmensen,et al.  Cell‐Mediated Immunity to Yersinia enterocolitica Serotype 3 in Patients with Thyroid Diseases , 1978, Allergy.

[174]  E. Bottone,et al.  Antibodies to Yersinia enterocolitica in thyroid disease. , 1976, Annals of internal medicine.

[175]  D. Hadden,et al.  Environmental stress and thyrotoxicosis. Absence of association. , 1974, Lancet.

[176]  R. Wasnich,et al.  Graves' ophthalmopathy following external neck irradiation for nonthyroidal neoplastic disease. , 1973, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[177]  M Winick,et al.  Cellular response in rats during malnutrition at various ages. , 1966, The Journal of nutrition.

[178]  H. S. Davis,et al.  A Controlled Study , 1966 .

[179]  B. P,et al.  ANTIBODIES TO PLASMID-ENCODED PROTEINS OF ENTEROPATHOGENIC YERSINIA IN PATIENTS WITH AUTOIMMUNE THYROID DISEASE , 2003 .

[180]  D. Petitti Clinical practice. Combination estrogen-progestin oral contraceptives. , 2003, The New England journal of medicine.

[181]  B. Maras,et al.  123I-Interleukin-2: biochemical characterization and in vivo use for imaging autoimmune diseases. , 2003, Nuclear medicine communications.

[182]  A. Weetman Autoimmune thyroid disease: propagation and progression. , 2003, European journal of endocrinology.

[183]  H. C. Hoeck,et al.  Smoking as a risk factor for Graves' disease, toxic nodular goiter, and autoimmune hypothyroidism. , 2002, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[184]  P. Unger,et al.  Intrathyroidal fetal microchimerism in pregnancy and postpartum. , 2002, Endocrinology.

[185]  C. Biron Interferons alpha and beta as immune regulators--a new look. , 2001, Immunity.

[186]  G. Daniels Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. , 2001, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[187]  J. Soule,et al.  Graves' disease after 131I therapy for toxic nodule. , 2001, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[188]  B. Diamond,et al.  Autoimmune diseases , 2000, Bone Marrow Transplantation.

[189]  N. Paunković,et al.  The significant increase in incidence of Graves' disease in eastern Serbia during the civil war in the former Yugoslavia (1992 to 1995). , 1998, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[190]  P. Yeo,et al.  Interferon-alpha induced thyroid dysfunction: three clinical presentations and a review of the literature. , 1997, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[191]  B. Boehm,et al.  Immunogenetics of Graves’ Disease , 1997 .

[192]  G. Fattovich,et al.  A survey of adverse events in 11,241 patients with chronic viral hepatitis treated with alfa interferon. , 1996, Journal of hepatology.

[193]  C. Pellegrino,et al.  Anti 70 kDa heat shock protein antibodies in sera of patients affected by autoimmune and non-autoimmune thyroid diseases. , 1995, Endocrine research.

[194]  C. Chen,et al.  Influence of smoking on Graves' disease with or without ophthalmopathy and nontoxic nodular goiter in Taiwan. , 1994, Journal of the Formosan Medical Association = Taiwan yi zhi.

[195]  E. Resetkova,et al.  Seroreactivity to bacterial antigens is not a unique phenomenon in patients with autoimmune thyroid diseases in Canada. , 1994, Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association.

[196]  S. Westphal Seasonal variation in the diagnosis of Graves' disease. , 1994, Clinical endocrinology.

[197]  A. Toivanen,et al.  Does Yersinia induce autoimmunity? , 1994, International archives of allergy and immunology.

[198]  A. Aguzzi,et al.  Possible role of human foamy virus in Graves' disease. , 1993, Intervirology.

[199]  N. Bagchi,et al.  The role of iodine in thyroid autoimmunity: from chickens to humans: a review. , 1992, Autoimmunity.

[200]  J. Heesemann,et al.  Enteropathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica and organ-specific autoimmune diseases in man. , 1991, Contributions to microbiology and immunology.

[201]  L. Braverman Iodine induced thyroid disease. , 1990, Acta medica Austriaca.

[202]  J. Heesemann,et al.  Autoimmune thyroid diseases and enteropathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica. , 1990, Autoimmunity.

[203]  N. Farid,et al.  Association between Graves' ophthalmopathy and smoking. , 1990, Lancet.

[204]  P. Houtman,et al.  Yersinia in intestinal biopsy specimens from patients with seronegative spondyloarthropathy: correlation with specific serum IgA antibodies. , 1989, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[205]  J. Garber,et al.  The development of Graves' disease following radiation therapy in Hodgkin's disease. , 1988, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[206]  R Volpé,et al.  Autoimmune thyroid disease. , 1984, Hospital practice.

[207]  P. Skillern Genetics of Graves' disease. , 1972, Mayo Clinic proceedings.