The Effect of Direct and Indirect Barbecue Cooking on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Formation and Beef Quality

Herein, the effect of direct and indirect barbecue cooking processes, including different cooking degrees (medium and well done), on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and on certain quality parameters (water content, cooking loss, pH, lipid oxidation) of beef meat was examined. While no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the cooking method was detected on the water content, cooking loss, ∑PAH4 [the sum of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), chrysen (Chry), and benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF)], and ∑PAH8 [the sum of BaP, BaA, Chry, benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DahA), benzo[g,h,i]perylene (Bghip), and indeno [1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IncdP)] content, it was determined that it had a significant effect on pH (p < 0.05) and lipid oxidation (TBARS, p < 0.01). While the cooking degree did not have a significant effect (p > 0.05) on the TBARS value, it had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the water content and pH value, and a very significant effect (p < 0.01) on the cooking loss. While BaA and BaP compounds were detected in all barbecued samples, the DahA compound could not be detected in any of the samples. Varying levels of BaA (up to 5.62 ng/g), Chry (up to 0.43 ng/g), BbF (LOD-..-LOQ), BkF (LOD-..-LOQ), BaP (up to 0.49 ng/g), BghiP (up to 0.82 ng/g), and IncdP (up to 4.99 ng/g) compounds were determined in the samples. While the ∑PAH4 contents varied between 0.71 and 6.35 ng/g, the ∑PAH8 contents varied between 1.12 and 11.34 ng/g. While the increase in cooking level did not affect the ∑PAH4 content, it caused a significant increase in the ∑PAH8 content. The highest BaP (0.49 ng/g), ∑PAH4 (6.35 ng/g), and ∑PAH8 (11.34 ng/g) contents were detected in the meat samples that were well cooked on the barbecue by the direct method. The results have proven that PAHs are formed at varying levels in both meat samples cooked on the barbecue by the direct method and the indirect method. On the other hand, it has been determined that even if 100 g of the meat with the highest BaP and ∑PAH4 content is eaten, the exposure amount remains far below the limit values specified for PAHs. However, paying close attention to the barbecue cooking process is still recommended.

[1]  Sadettin Turhan,et al.  The Effects of the Marination Process with Different Vinegar Varieties on Various Quality Criteria and Heterocyclic Aromatic Amine Formation in Beef Steak , 2022, Foods.

[2]  F. Oz,et al.  Mutagenic and/or carcinogenic compounds in meat and meat products: Heterocyclic aromatic amines perspective , 2022, Theory and practice of meat processing.

[3]  Zongshuai Zhu,et al.  The contamination, formation, determination and control of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in meat products , 2022, Food Control.

[4]  A. Onopiuk,et al.  Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using different extraction methods and HPLC-FLD detection in smoked and grilled meat products. , 2021, Food chemistry.

[5]  Mustafa Yaman,et al.  Ette Lipit Oksidasyonu ve Etkileyen Faktörler , 2021, European Journal of Science and Technology.

[6]  F. Oz,et al.  Effect of turmeric on the reduction of heterocyclic aromatic amines and quality of chicken meatballs , 2021 .

[7]  E. Oz.  The presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic aromatic amines in barbecued meatballs formulated with different animal fats. , 2021, Food chemistry.

[8]  T. J. Ashaolu,et al.  Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Formation and Mitigation in Meat and Meat Products , 2020, Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds.

[9]  G. Cheon,et al.  Association of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals with thyroid hormones in general adult population and potential mechanisms. , 2020, The Science of the total environment.

[10]  S. Okolo,et al.  MEAT QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPROVED INDIGENOUS CHICKENS (FUNAAB-ALPHA) FED TURMERIC (Curcuma longa) OR CLOVE (Syzygium aromaticum) AS FEED ADDITIVES , 2020, Journal of Agricultural Science and Environment.

[11]  F. Oz,et al.  Effect of basil use in meatball production on heterocyclic aromatic amine formation , 2020, Journal of Food Science and Technology.

[12]  A. Korkmaz,et al.  Effect of the use of dry breadcrumb in meatball production on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines , 2020 .

[13]  M. Hadjigeorgiou,et al.  Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in traditionally smoked meat products and charcoal grilled meat in Cyprus. , 2020, Meat science.

[14]  C. Calhau,et al.  Inhibitory effect of vinegars on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in charcoal-grilled pork. , 2020, Meat science.

[15]  E. Oz.  Effects of smoke flavoring using different wood chips and barbecuing on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic aromatic amines in salmon fillets , 2020, PloS one.

[16]  T. Amagai,et al.  Simultaneous determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their chlorinated derivatives in grilled foods. , 2019, Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.

[17]  F. Oz,et al.  The effect of using different types and rates of onion-water extract in meatball production on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines. , 2019, Journal of the science of food and agriculture.

[18]  Yaqing Sun,et al.  Trends of research on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food: A 20-year perspective from 1997 to 2017 , 2019, Trends in Food Science & Technology.

[19]  Jichao Huang,et al.  Inhibitory effect of Chrysanthemum morifolium flower extract on the formation of heterocyclic amines in goat meat patties cooked by various cooking methods and temperatures. , 2019, Meat science.

[20]  Ömer Aydın,et al.  Bazı Et Türlerinde Polisiklik Aromatik Hidrokarbon Oluşumuna Farklı Pişirme Yöntemlerinin Etkisi , 2018, Akademik Gıda.

[21]  K. Vangnai,et al.  Influence of wood types on quality and carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) of smoked sausages , 2018 .

[22]  J. Patra,et al.  Factors influencing inhibition of eight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in heated meat model system. , 2018, Food chemistry.

[23]  M. Karakaya,et al.  The effects of different spices and fat types on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines in barbecued sucuk. , 2018, Journal of the science of food and agriculture.

[24]  V. Juneja,et al.  Heterocyclic aromatic amines content in chicken burgers and chicken nuggets sold in fast food restaurants and effects of green tea extract and microwave thawing on their formation , 2017 .

[25]  M. Karakaya,et al.  Formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in beef and lamb kokorec: Effects of different animal fats , 2017 .

[26]  F. Oz,et al.  The effects of cooking on wire and stone barbecue at different cooking levels on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in beef steak. , 2016, Food chemistry.

[27]  N. Rastkari,et al.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Iranian Kebabs , 2016 .

[28]  M. Díaz,et al.  Contamination of meat products during smoking by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Processes and prevention , 2016 .

[29]  N. Erhunmwunse,et al.  Effects of Barbecuing on the Levels of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Fish (Pseudotolitus Elongatus and Clarias Gariepinus) , 2016 .

[30]  Sadettin Turhan,et al.  The effects of direct addition of low and medium molecular weight chitosan on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines in beef chop , 2016 .

[31]  F. Oz,et al.  The effects of conjugated linoleic acid usage in meatball production on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines , 2016 .

[32]  M. Fakültesi,et al.  Polisiklik Aromatik Hidrokarbonlar ve Gıdalarda Önemi Pelin , 2016 .

[33]  F. Oz,et al.  The Effect of Direct Addition of Conjugated Linoleic Acid on the Formation of Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines in Beef Chops , 2015 .

[34]  M. Aaslyng,et al.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in Danish barbecued meat , 2015 .

[35]  Martin Rose,et al.  Investigation into the formation of PAHs in foods prepared in the home to determine the effects of frying, grilling, barbecuing, toasting and roasting. , 2015, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[36]  F. Oz.  Effects of Water Extract of Urtica dioica L. on the Quality of Meatballs , 2014 .

[37]  D. S. Buchanan,et al.  Effectiveness of oxygen barrier oven bags in low temperature cooking on reduction of warmed-over flavor in beef roasts. , 2014, Meat science.

[38]  S. Jinap,et al.  Effects of varying degrees of doneness on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines in chicken and beef satay. , 2013, Meat science.

[39]  M. Aaslyng,et al.  Content of heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in pork, beef and chicken barbecued at home by Danish consumers. , 2013, Meat science.

[40]  F. Oz,et al.  Determination of Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines in Cooked Commercial Frozen Meat Products by Ultrafast Liquid Chromatography , 2013, Food Analytical Methods.

[41]  I. Zaidul,et al.  Effects of marinating on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and fluoranthene) in grilled beef meat , 2012 .

[42]  J. O. Lalah,et al.  The Effect of Local Cooking Methods on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Contents in Beef, Goat Meat, and Pork as Potential Sources of Human Exposure in Kisumu City, Kenya , 2012 .

[43]  Erol Alver,et al.  Polisiklik Aromatik Hidrokarbonlar ve Sağlığa Etkileri , 2012 .

[44]  J. Ruiz-Carrascal,et al.  Physico-chemical, textural and structural characteristics of sous-vide cooked pork cheeks as affected by vacuum, cooking temperature, and cooking time. , 2012, Meat science.

[45]  D. B. Min,et al.  Effects of grilling and roasting on the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in beef and pork , 2011 .

[46]  F. Gosetti,et al.  Simultaneous determination of thirteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and twelve aldehydes in cooked food by an automated on-line solid phase extraction ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. , 2011, Journal of chromatography. A.

[47]  I. Zaidul,et al.  Effects of meat preheating and wrapping on the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in charcoal-grilled meat , 2011 .

[48]  M. Kaya,et al.  Effects of cooking methods and levels on formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines in chicken and fish with Oasis extraction method , 2010 .

[49]  O. Polvillo,et al.  Buffalo meat composition as affected by different cooking methods , 2010 .

[50]  S. Jinap,et al.  Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled meat , 2010 .

[51]  J. Prates,et al.  Effect of cooking methods on fatty acids, conjugated isomers of linoleic acid and nutritional quality of beef intramuscular fat. , 2010, Meat science.

[52]  L. Le Marchand,et al.  Heterocyclic amines content of meat and fish cooked by Brazilian methods. , 2010, Journal of food composition and analysis : an official publication of the United Nations University, International Network of Food Data Systems.

[53]  J. Cravedi,et al.  Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Food - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain , 2008, EFSA Journal.

[54]  M. S. Brewer,et al.  Effect of natural antioxidants on oxidative stability of cooked, refrigerated beef and pork. , 2007, Journal of food science.

[55]  W. Visessanguan,et al.  Changes in lipid composition and fatty acid profile of Nham, a Thai fermented pork sausage, during fermentation , 2006 .

[56]  M. Estévez,et al.  Fatty acid profiles of intramuscular fat from pork loin chops fried in different culinary fats following refrigerated storage , 2005 .

[57]  M. Jägerstad,et al.  Genotoxicity of heat-processed foods. , 2005, Mutation research.

[58]  H. Biesalski,et al.  Meat as a component of a healthy diet - are there any risks or benefits if meat is avoided in the diet? , 2005, Meat science.

[59]  A. Stołyhwo,et al.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked fish: a critical review , 2005 .

[60]  Ja-Jang Chen,et al.  Removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by low density polyethylene from liquid model and roasted meat , 2005 .

[61]  M. Richards,et al.  Lipid Oxidation in Poultry Döner Kebab: Pro‐oxidative and Anti‐oxidative Factors , 2003 .

[62]  N. Rothman,et al.  Analysis of 200 food items for benzo[a]pyrene and estimation of its intake in an epidemiologic study. , 2001, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[63]  K. Wakabayashi,et al.  Effects of Seasoning and Heating Device on Mutagenicity and Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Beef , 2001, Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry.

[64]  Y. S. Lin,et al.  Formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during processing of duck meat , 1997 .