Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory.

Recent changes in prctheorclical orientation toward problems of human memory have brought with them a concern with retrieval processes, and a number of early versions of theories of retrieval have been constructed. This paper describes and evaluates explanations offered by these theories to account for the effect of extralist cuing, facilitation of recall of list items by nonlist items. Experiments designed to test the currently most popular theory of retrieval, the generation-recognition theory, yielded results incompatible not only with generation-recognition models, but most other theories as well: under certain conditions subjects consistently failed to recognize many recallable list words. Several tentative explanations of this phenomenon of recognition failure were subsumed under the encoding specificity principle according to which the memory trace of an event and hence the properties of effective retrieval cue are determined by the specific encoding operations performed by the system on the input stimuli.

[1]  D. Spalding.  The Principles of Psychology , 1873, Nature.

[2]  B. Murdock,et al.  The effect of repetition on the retention of individual words. , 1961, The American journal of psychology.

[3]  E. Martin,et al.  Stimulus meaningfulness and paired-associate transfer: an encoding variability hypothesis. , 1968, Psychological review.

[4]  F. Yates.  The Art of Memory , 1969 .

[5]  Eugene Winograd,et al.  Evidence from Recognition Memory for Specific Encoding of Unmodified Homographs. , 1971 .

[6]  Barbara Tversky,et al.  Encoding processes in recognition and recall , 1973 .

[7]  Gordon Wood,et al.  Category names as cues for the recall of category instances , 1967 .

[8]  E. Tulving,et al.  Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words , 1966 .

[9]  A. W. Melton,et al.  Coding Processes in Human Memory. , 1973 .

[10]  William F. Battig,et al.  Free recall of taxonomically and alphabetically organized word lists as a function of storage and retrieval cues , 1972 .

[11]  Donald M. Thomson,et al.  Context Effects in Recognition Memory. , 1972 .

[12]  L. Postman.  Short-Term Memory and Incidental Learning , 1964 .

[13]  E. Tulving,et al.  Episodic and semantic memory , 1972 .

[14]  F. Craik,et al.  Levels of Pro-cessing: A Framework for Memory Research , 1975 .

[15]  E. Tulving,et al.  Retrieval processes in recognition memory: Effects of associative context , 1971 .

[16]  Samuel A. Bobrow.  Memory for Words in Sentences. , 1970 .

[17]  N. J. Slamecka,et al.  Testing for associative storage in multitrial free recall. , 1969 .

[18]  A I Schulman,et al.  Recognition memory for targets from a scanned word list. , 1971, British journal of psychology.

[19]  Kenneth R. Laughery,et al.  Recognition and recall of high frequency words following serial learning , 1966 .

[20]  Neal F. Johnson,et al.  The Role of Chunking and Organization in The Process of Recall , 1970 .

[21]  F. Bartlett,et al.  Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology , 1932 .

[22]  Harry P. Bahrick,et al.  A Re-examination of the Interrelations among Measures of Retention , 1964 .

[23]  Walter Kintsch,et al.  11 – Models for Free Recall and Recognition1 , 1970 .

[24]  Phebe Cramer,et al.  Magnitude and selectivity as independent factors in semantic generalization , 1970 .

[25]  G. Bower.  Organizational factors in memory. , 1970 .

[26]  Joseph Wiant,et al.  THE EFFECTS OF CONTEXTUAL CHANGES ON COMPONENT RECOGNITION , 1972 .

[27]  J. Jenkins,et al.  Two More Incidental Tasks That Differentially Affect Associative Clustering in Recall. , 1971 .

[28]  Michael J. Watkins,et al.  When is recall spectacularly higher than recognition , 1974 .

[29]  John R. Anderson,et al.  RECOGNITION AND RETRIEVAL PROCESSES IN FREE RECALL , 1972 .

[30]  P. D. Mccormack,et al.  Recognition memory: How complex a retrieval system? , 1972 .

[31]  N. Frost,et al.  Encoding and retrieval in visual memory tasks. , 1972, Journal of experimental psychology.

[32]  E. Bilodeau.  Experimental interference with primary associates and their subsequent recovery with rest. , 1967, Journal of experimental psychology.

[33]  Richard C. Atkinson,et al.  Search and retrieval processes in long-term memory , 1968 .

[34]  Richard C. Atkinson,et al.  Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes , 1968, Psychology of Learning and Motivation.

[35]  Edwin Martin,et al.  Stimulus component independence , 1971 .

[36]  E. Tulving,et al.  Associative encoding and retrieval: Weak and strong cues. , 1970 .

[37]  Gordon H. Bower,et al.  A MULTICOMPONENT THEORY OF THE MEMORY TRACE , 1967 .

[38]  D. Yntema,et al.  Recall as a search process , 1963 .

[39]  I. Steele Russell,et al.  Role of encoding unitization in cued recognition memory , 1971 .

[40]  E A BILODEAU,et al.  STIMULATION AND PREDICTION OF VERBAL RECALL AND MISRECALL. , 1964, Journal of experimental psychology.

[41]  W. Köhler.  Gestalt psychology , 1967 .

[42]  G. Bower,et al.  Hierarchical retrieval schemes in recall of categorized word lists , 1969 .

[43]  Gerold Mikula,et al.  Der Einfluß mnemotechnischer Hilfen auf das Erlernen und Behalten verbalen Materials , 1971 .

[44]  Peter Herriot,et al.  Attributes of Memory , 1974 .

[45]  David A. Wicklund,et al.  Free Association Norms. , 1972 .

[46]  P. Fox,et al.  Aided Retrieval of Previously Unrecalled Information. , 1971 .

[47]  Benton J. Underwood,et al.  Restricted associates as cues in free recall , 1970 .

[48]  E. Ghatala,et al.  Effectiveness of Acoustic and Conceptual Retrieval Cues in Memory for Words at Two Grade Levels. Technical Report No. 220. , 1972 .

[49]  A. Bregman.  Forgetting curves with semantic, phonetic, graphic, and contiguity cues. , 1968 .

[50]  D. E. Broadbent,et al.  FREE RECALL WITH ASSISTANCE FROM ONE AND FROM TWO RETRIEVAL CUES , 1971 .

[51]  L. Light.  Homonyms and synonyms as retrieval cues. , 1972 .

[52]  K. Blick,et al.  Courses of Misrecall over Long-Term Retention Intervals as Related to Strength of Pre-Experimental Habits of Word Association , 1965 .

[53]  Roy Laehman,et al.  Recognition and recall of verbal material as a function of degree of training , 1965 .

[54]  H. P. Bahrick.  Measurement of memory by prompted recall. , 1969 .

[55]  Robert L. Hudson,et al.  Effect of context and category name on the recall of categorized word lists , 1970 .

[56]  Marcia Earhard,et al.  Storage and retrieval of words encoded in memory. , 1969 .

[57]  Delos D. Wickens,et al.  Encoding Categories of Words: An Empirical Approach to Meaning. , 1970 .

[58]  P. A. Adams,et al.  Studies in incidental learning. II. The effects of association value and of the method of testing. , 1955, Journal of experimental psychology.

[59]  A. Paivio,et al.  Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual coding? , 1973 .

[60]  Endel Tulving,et al.  When is recall higher than recognition? , 1968 .

[61]  N. J. Slamecka,et al.  The question of associative growth in the learning of categorized material , 1972 .

[62]  T. S. Hyde,et al.  Differential effects of incidental tasks on the organization of recall of a list of highly associated words. , 1969 .

[63]  Solomon E. Asch,et al.  A reformulation of the problem of associations. , 1969 .

[64]  G Mikula.  [Effects of mnemonic aids on learning and retention of nouns]. , 1971, Psychologische Forschung.

[65]  Donald Broadbent,et al.  In defence of empirical psychology , 1973 .

[66]  E. Tulving,et al.  Retroactive inhibition in free recall: Inaccessibility of information available in the memory store , 1971 .

[67]  K. Koffka.  Principles Of Gestalt Psychology , 1936 .

[68]  D. Rumelhart,et al.  A system for perception and memory , 1970 .

[69]  Fergus I. M. Craik,et al.  A “LEVELS OF ANALYSIS” VIEW OF MEMORY , 1973 .

[70]  B. Underwood.  FALSE RECOGNITION PRODUCED BY IMPLICIT VERBAL RESPONSES. , 1965, Journal of experimental psychology.

[71]  H. P. Bahrick.  Two-phase model for prompted recall. , 1970 .

[72]  C. Richard Puff,et al.  Clustering as a function of the sequential organization of stimulus word lists , 1966 .

[73]  M. R. Harrower,et al.  Organization in higher mental processes , 1933 .

[74]  G. Mandler.  Organization and Memory , 1967 .

[75]  L. Light,et al.  Effects of Changed Semantic Context on Recognition Memory , 1970 .

[76]  E. Tulving,et al.  Effectiveness of retrieval cues in memory for words. , 1968, Journal of experimental psychology.

[77]  O. Reiser,et al.  Principles Of Gestalt Psychology , 1936 .

[78]  A. W. Melton.  Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of memory , 1963 .

[79]  D. Norman.  Toward a theory of memory and attention. , 1968 .

[80]  T. Dixon,et al.  Verbal behavior and general behavior theory , 1968 .