The light of the night sky and the interplanetary medium

Four of the components of the light of the night sky are described; the aurora is not included. The early history of star counting to determine the brightness of the integrated starlight is reviewed and suggestions made for improving upon this work and extending it to longer wavelengths. Work on the zodiacal light since 1967 is described in detail. The most recent observations of surface brightness, polarization and the spectrum are given and emphasis is laid on the motions and origin of the interplanetary dust particles. A survey is made of the known emissions of the night airglow with reference to their emitting heights, their variation with time and photochemistry. Particular attention is paid to the problem of the nightglow continuum and the diffuse Lyman-α radiation from the night sky is considered in some detail. Finally, brief mention is made of the diffuse galactic radiation as a possible contributor to the light of the night sky. This review was completed in August 1971.

[1]  H. Carlson.  Ionospheric heating by magnetic conjugate-point photoelectrons , 1966 .

[2]  A. Witt.  Interpretation of the Diffuse Galactic Light , 1968, Nature.

[3]  A. Lyle Broadfoot,et al.  The airglow spectrum, 3100-10,000 A , 1968 .

[4]  On diffuse galatic Lyman-α in the night sky , 1964 .

[5]  M. Liwshitz.  The effect of thermal escape on the neutral hydrogen density above 120 kilometers , 1967 .

[6]  T. Donahue.  Discussion of paper by Y. Kondo and J. E. Kupperian, Jr., ‘Interaction of the neutral hydrogen and charged particles in the radiation belts: The consequent Lyman‐alpha emission’ , 1968 .

[7]  A. Broadfoot,et al.  WEAK EMISSIONS IN THE NEAR-INFRARED DAYTIME AIRGLOW. , 1969 .

[8]  P. Hays,et al.  DOPPLER PROFILES OF THE 5577 A AIRGLOW. , 1966 .

[9]  L. Megill,et al.  Integrated Starlight Over the Sky , 1961 .

[10]  Ya. P. Kyo.  N2+ ions in the nocturnal upper atmosphere at middle latitudes , 1966 .

[11]  G. Weill,et al.  Excitation of the oxygen lines and ionospheric heating by conjugate photoelectrons , 1968 .

[12]  N. N. Shefov.  Hydroxyl emission of the upper atmosphere—I: The behaviour during a solar cycle, seasons and geomagnetic disturbances , 1969 .

[13]  N. K. Reay,et al.  Hβ Radiation in the spectrum of the night sky , 1968 .

[14]  I. Shapiro,et al.  The Earth's Dust Belt: Fact or fiction?: 1. Forces perturbing dust particle motion , 1966 .

[15]  E. Ney,et al.  Airglow observations from OSO‐B2 satellite , 1968 .

[16]  R. Wolstencroft.  On the location in space of the zodiacal dust particles , 1967 .

[17]  M. Harwit,et al.  Far-Infrared Observations of the Night Sky , 1969, Science.

[18]  M. Torr,et al.  Discussion of letter by Robert T. Bennett, ‘Latitude dependence of 6300 A (O I) twilight airglow enhancement’ , 1969 .

[19]  J. Mack,et al.  Measurements of the Hβ profile in the zodiacal light spectrum , 1968 .

[20]  M. Ingham.  The Profile of an Absorption Line in the Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light , 1963 .

[21]  J. W. Chamberlain,et al.  PLANETARY CORONAE AND ATMOSPHERIC EVAPORATION , 1963 .

[22]  R. Wolstencroft,et al.  Further Observations of the Zodiacal Light from a High Altitude Station and Investigation of the Interplanetary Plasma: II. Spectrophotometry Observations and the Electron Density in Interplanetary Space , 1964 .

[23]  S. Peale.  Dust belt of the Earth , 1966 .

[24]  A. S. Asaad.  Effect of the Solar Activity on the Brightness and Polarization of the Zodiacal Light , 1967, Nature.

[25]  R. Jameson,et al.  Observations of the Polarization of the Night Sky and a Model of the Zodiacal Cloud Normal to the Eliptical Plane , 1968 .

[26]  R. Roosen.  A photographic investigation of the gegenschein and the Earth-Moon libration point L5 , 1968 .

[27]  P. Feldman,et al.  Far-infrared observations of the night sky: different data. , 1970, Science.

[28]  C. Mcilwain,et al.  Coordinates for Mapping the Distribution of Magnetically Trapped Particles , 1961 .

[29]  H. M. Mann,et al.  Negative polarization in the zodiacal light. , 1968 .

[30]  W. H. Chambers,et al.  Anisotropic Atomic Hydrogen Distribution in Interplanetary Space , 1970, Nature.

[31]  D. Hunten.  Spectroscopic studies of the twilight airglow , 1967 .

[32]  R. Tousey,et al.  The Profile of Solar Hydrogen-Lyman-α , 1960 .

[33]  J. James.  Theoretical Fraunhofer Line Profiles in the Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light , 1969 .

[34]  D. Blackwell,et al.  Observations of the Zodiacal Light from a Very High Altitude Station: III. The Disturbed Zodiacal Light and Corpuscular Radiation , 1961 .

[35]  T. C. Winter,et al.  The determination of the profile of the night sky hydrogen Lyman alpha emission line , 1967 .

[36]  M. McElroy,et al.  The Detection of λ 3889 OF Orthohelium in the Twilight Airglow. , 1965 .

[37]  R. Jameson.  Observations and a Model of the Zodiacal Light , 1970 .

[38]  L. Wallace,et al.  A method of determining the atmospheric sodium concentration from twilight observations , 1970 .

[39]  R. E. Anctil,et al.  Airborne night airglow measurements in the South Atlantic Magnetic Anomaly , 1966 .

[40]  S. P. Zimmerman,et al.  Correlation between the 5577 Å [OI] night airglow intensity and solar activity , 1967 .

[41]  R. MacQueen.  Infrared observations of the outer solar corona. , 1968 .

[42]  I. Shapiro,et al.  The Earth's Dust Belt: Fact or fiction?: 2. Gravitational focusing and Jacobi capture , 1966 .

[43]  Michael B. McElroy,et al.  Excitation of atmospheric helium , 1965 .

[44]  K. Yano.  A long-term aspect of the seasonal variation in the nightglow 5577 intensity at middle latitudes , 1967 .

[45]  A. Broadfoot.  Resonance scattering by N2 , 1967 .

[46]  V. Kurt,et al.  Far Ultraviolet Radiation from the Milky Way , 1968, Nature.

[47]  G. Carruthers,et al.  Detection of Lyman-β and Helium Resonance Radiation in the Night Sky , 1968, Science.

[48]  A. W. Peterson.  Experimental detection of thermal radiation from interplanetary dust. , 1967 .

[49]  R. Moffett.  Sodium Distribution in the Terrestrial Upper Atmosphere , 1969, Nature.

[50]  S. Peale.  Evidence against a geocentric contribution to the zodiacal light , 1968 .

[51]  N. K. Reay.  Zodiacal Dust Particles: Some Comments on Recent Evidence concerning their Motion , 1969, Nature.

[52]  S. Wyatt.  The electrostatic charge of interplanetary grains , 1969 .

[53]  A. Nagy,et al.  Calculated [OI] 6300 A nightglow doppler temperatures for solar cycle minimum , 1968 .

[54]  H. Fahr,et al.  Interpretation of Extraterrestrial Lyman-alpha Observations , 1971, Nature.

[55]  G. Thomas,et al.  Lyman α scattering in the Earth's hydrogen geocorona: 2. , 1963 .

[56]  C. Barth.  Rocket measurement of nitric oxide in the upper atmosphere , 1966 .

[57]  E. C. Bruner,et al.  Absorption measurements of earth's hydrogen atmosphere from solar hydrogen Lyman alpha rocket data , 1970 .

[58]  S. Singer,et al.  Thermal escape of neutral hydrogen and its distribution in the Earth's thermosphere , 1966 .

[59]  S. Silverman,et al.  General behavior of 6300 Å [OI] at Sacramento Peak, New Mexico , 1966 .

[60]  I. Shapiro,et al.  The Earth's Dust Belt: Fact or fiction?: 4. Sunlight-pressure air-drag capture , 1966 .

[61]  M. McElroy,et al.  Electron Impact Excitation of the Dayglow , 1969 .

[62]  Y. Truttse.  Oxygen emission at ? 6300 and geomagnetic activity , 1968 .

[63]  B. Tinsley,et al.  Measurements of twilight helium 10,830 Å emission , 1968 .

[64]  B. Mccormac.  The Radiating Atmosphere , 1971 .

[65]  J. Turtle,et al.  The NI (4S°32−2D°52,32) transitions in the upper atmosphere at night , 1969 .

[66]  J. Schubart.  Long-Period Effects in the Motion of Hilda-Type Planets , 1968 .

[67]  M. McElroy,et al.  The visual dayglow , 1966 .

[68]  V. L. Peterson,et al.  F‐Region nightglow emissions of atomic oxygen: 2. Analysis of 6300 A and electron density data , 1966 .

[69]  I. Shklovsky.  On hydrogen emission in the night glow , 1959 .

[70]  S. G. Tilford,et al.  Intensity profiles of the 6300-A and 5577-A O I lines in the night airglow , 1968 .

[71]  N. N. Shefov.  Intensity and Rotational Temperature Variations of Hydroxyl Emission in the Night-glow , 1968, Nature.

[72]  M. Wolff.  A new attack on height measurement of the nightglow by ground triangulation , 1966 .

[73]  G. Kvifte.  Hydroxyl rotational temperatures and intensities in the nightglow , 1967 .

[74]  F. Whipple.  The Dust Cloud about the Earth , 1961, Nature.

[75]  R. Racine,et al.  The Reddening of M3, M13, M31, and M33 from Photometry of Late-Type Field Stars , 1969 .

[76]  B. Tinsley.  Temporal variations in geocoronal Balmer alpha , 1968 .

[77]  D. Blackwell,et al.  The Distribution of Dust in Interplanetary Space , 1967 .

[78]  Ross Smith.  Some observations of the predawn enhancement of the red line airglow over , 1969 .

[79]  E. Carman,et al.  Predawn enhancement of 6300 Å airglow in conjugate regions , 1969 .

[80]  W. Peetermans,et al.  Atomic oxygen infrared emission in the earth's upper atmosphere , 1970 .

[81]  A. Jarrett,et al.  Observations of the 6300 Å OI nightglow emission , 1966 .

[82]  M. Ingham.  Observations of the Night Sky Hα Emission Line , 1968 .

[83]  T. Davis,et al.  Latitudinal and seasonal variations in the night airglow , 1965 .

[84]  J. B. Pearce.  Rocket measurement of nitric oxide between 60 and 96 kilometers , 1969 .

[85]  S. Singer,et al.  Interplanetary dust measurements near the Earth , 1969 .

[86]  M. Ingham.  The Pre-Dawn Enhancement of the 6300Å [O I] Line in the Nightglow , 1969 .

[87]  J. Ring,et al.  Profile of the Hβ Line in the Spectrum of Zodiacal Light , 1964, Nature.

[88]  N. N. Shefov.  Discussion of paper by Y. Kondo and J. E. Kupperian, Jr., ‘Interaction of the neutral hydrogen and charged particles in the radiation belts: The consequent Lyman‐alpha emission’ , 1969 .

[89]  D. Blackwell,et al.  The Nightglow Spectrum: II. Hα Radiation in the Night Sky , 1962 .

[90]  W. Evans,et al.  Balloon-borne Observations of Brightness Variations in the (0,0) Band of the (1Δg−3σg−) System of Oxygen in the Day and Twilight Airglow , 1967, Nature.

[91]  J. Noxon.  The latitude dependence of OH rotational temperature in the night airglow , 1964 .

[92]  J. E. Kupperian,et al.  Far ultra-violet radiation in the night sky , 1959 .

[93]  R. Meier,et al.  OGO 3 observations of the Lyman alpha intensity and the hydrogen concentration beyond 5 RE , 1970 .

[94]  D. Garvin,et al.  Chemically Induced Molecular Excitation: Excitation Spectrum of the Nitric Oxide‐Ozone System , 1959 .

[95]  A. Witt.  SCATTERING PROPERTIES OF INTERSTELLAR PARTICLES. I. DIFFUSE GALACTIC RADIATION. , 1968 .

[96]  W. Gault,et al.  TWILIGHT OBSERVATIONS OF UPPER ATMOSPHERIC SODIUM, POTASSIUM, AND LITHIUM. , 1969 .

[97]  R. T. Bennett.  Latitude dependence of 6300 A (O I) twilight airglow enhancement , 1969 .

[98]  B. Tinsley.  Reinterpretation of geocoronal observations with increased high/low altitude hydrogen ratio , 1969 .

[99]  H. Crosswhite,et al.  Aircraft airglow intensity measurements: Variations in OH and OI (5577) , 1970 .

[100]  J. Woodman,et al.  Synoptic description of the 5577 Å nightglow near 78°W longitude , 1967 .

[101]  R. Wolstencroft,et al.  Interpretation of Doppler Shifts in the Zodiacal Light Spectrum , 1969, Nature.

[102]  E. B. Armstrong.  Observation of the airglow Hα emission , 1967 .

[103]  J. Turtle,et al.  Nightglow 5577 Å [OI] line kinetic temperatures , 1965 .

[104]  M. Harwit.  Origins of the zodiacal dust cloud , 1963 .

[105]  V. Degen.  Vibrational populations of O2 (A ³Σ u +) and synthetic spectra of the Herzberg bands in the night airglow , 1969 .

[106]  T. Donahue.  Lyman α scattering in the Earth's hydrogen geocorona: 3. The extrageocoronal contribution , 1964 .

[107]  B. Tinsley.  Initial results of geocoronal Balmer Alpha observations , 1967 .

[108]  L. J. Rose,et al.  Observations of the Zodiacal Light from a Sounding Rocket , 1967 .

[109]  W. Axford,et al.  TERMINATION OF SOLAR WIND AND SOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD , 1963 .

[110]  G. Shepherd,et al.  Observations of a magnetic conjugate effect in the OI 6300 Å airglow at Saskatoon , 1969 .

[111]  Observations of the Zodiacal Light. , 1954 .

[112]  C. Barth.  Rocket measurement of the nitric oxide dayglow , 1964 .

[113]  R. Meier.  Balmer alpha and Lyman beta in the hydrogen geocorona , 1969 .

[114]  C. Nilsson.  Some Doubts about the Earth's Dust Cloud , 1966, Science.

[115]  P. Feldman,et al.  Far infrared nightglow emission from atomic oxygen , 1969 .

[116]  A. Hibbs.  The distribution of micrometeorites near the Earth , 1961 .

[117]  R. Meier,et al.  Geocoronal hydrogen: An analysis of the Lyman-alpha airglow observed from OGO-4 , 1970 .

[118]  D. Blackwell,et al.  The Nightglow Spectrum: I. λλ3700−4650 A , 1962 .

[119]  J. Noxon.  Oxygen Spectra in Dayglow, Twilight, and during an Eclipse , 1967, Nature.

[120]  G. Kvifte.  Auroral and nightglow observations at Ås, Norway , 1959 .

[121]  H. C. Hulst,et al.  The interpretation of the diffuse galactic radiation , 1969 .

[122]  J. A. Greenspan.  Synoptic description of the 6300 Å nightglow near 78° west longitude , 1966 .

[123]  N. N. Shefov.  Twilight helium emission during low and high geomagnetic activity , 1968 .

[124]  M. Harwit,et al.  Possibility of a Terrestrial Component in the Doppler Shifted Zodiacal Light , 1970, Nature.

[125]  L. Smith,et al.  Night airglow intensity variations in the [O I] 5577 A, [O I] 6300 A, and NaI 5890‐96 A emission lines , 1968 .

[126]  W. R. Langford,et al.  THE INTRINSIC COLOR INDICES OF THE RR LYRAE STARS AND THE REDDENING NEAR THE GALACTIC POLES , 1969 .

[127]  J. S. Dohnanyi.  Collisional model of asteroids and their debris , 1969 .

[128]  R. Giese,et al.  Suggested zodiacal light measurements from space probes , 1969 .

[129]  P. M. Livingston,et al.  UPPER LIMITS TO THE 304- AND 584-A NIGHT HELIUM GLOW. , 1968 .

[130]  G. T. Best.  A new use of the van Rhijn formula for airglow measurements , 1965 .

[131]  H. Gush,et al.  THE NEAR INFRARED SPECTRUM OF THE NIGHT AIRGLOW OBSERVED FROM HIGH ALTITUDE , 1964 .

[132]  J. E. Kupperian,et al.  INTERACTION OF THE NEUTRAL HYDROGEN AND CHARGED PARTICLES IN THE RADIATION BELTS: THE CONSEQUENT LYMAN-ALPHA EMISSION. , 1967 .

[133]  Faculteit der Wiskunde en Natuurwetenschappen,et al.  Zodiacal Light in the Solar Corona. , 1947 .

[134]  R. Huffman,et al.  Thermal and Recombination Emission of NO2 , 1970 .

[135]  D. Baker,et al.  Rocket measurement of midlatitude night airglow emissions , 1967 .

[136]  D. Hunten,et al.  Rocket measurements of the sodium dayglow , 1967 .

[137]  M. F. Ingham,et al.  The Spectrum of the Airglow , 1972 .

[138]  I. Shapiro,et al.  The Earth's Dust Belt: Fact or fiction?: 3. Lunar ejecta , 1966 .

[139]  C. Elvey,et al.  A Photoelectric Study of the Light from the Night Sky , 1937 .

[140]  B. Tinsley.  Interpretation of balmer α observations of M. F. Ingham: Summer-winter variation , 1969 .

[141]  H. N. Rundle,et al.  AN IDENTIFICATION OF TWILIGHT HELIUM 10,830-A EMISSION WITH INCREASED RESOLUTION AND PRELIMINARY PHOTOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS. , 1969 .

[142]  L. C. Henyey,et al.  Diffuse radiation in the Galaxy , 1940 .

[143]  R. Howard.  Magnetic Field of the Sun (Observational) , 1967 .

[144]  N. K. Reay,et al.  Radial velocity and intensity measurements of the night sky Hβ emission line , 1969 .

[145]  G. Thomas.  Lyman α scattering in the Earth's hydrogen geocorona: 1. , 1963 .

[146]  A. Upgren.  Space distribution of stars of intermediate spectral type in a North galactic pole region. , 1963 .

[147]  J. James,et al.  Motion of the Interplanetary Dust Cloud , 1970, Nature.

[148]  D. Hunten,et al.  N2+ emission in the twilight☆ , 1966 .

[149]  D. Morton,et al.  Observations of the extreme ultraviolet radiation in the night sky using an atomic hydrogen filter , 1962 .

[150]  J. Hennes.  Measurement of the ultraviolet nightglow spectrum , 1966 .

[151]  J. R. McAfee.  Lateral flow in the exosphere , 1967 .

[152]  M. A. Biondi,et al.  Twilight and nightglow spectral line shapes of oxygen λ6300 and λ5577 radiation , 1968 .

[153]  D. Blackwell,et al.  Observations of the Zodiacal Light from a Very High Altitude Station: II. Electron Densities in Interplanetarry Space , 1961 .

[154]  D. Heath,et al.  Rocket spectrophotometer airglow measurements in the far ultraviolet , 1964 .

[155]  J. W. Chamberlain,et al.  The Ultraviolet Airglow Spectrum. , 1955 .

[156]  D. Blackwell.  A Comparison of the Intensities of Infra-red and Violet Radiation from the Solar Corona at the Eclipse of 1952 February 25 , 1952 .

[157]  F. Roach,et al.  The light of the night sky: Astronomical, interplanetary and geophysical , 1964 .

[158]  M. Gadsden.  The nightglow continuum emission , 1967 .

[159]  E. C. Bruner,et al.  Hydrogen geocorona and solar Lyman-alpha line: 1. Rocket measurement of the solar line profile , 1969 .

[160]  D. Blackwell,et al.  Observations of the Zodiacal Light from a Very High Altitude Station: I. The Average Zodiacal Light , 1961 .

[161]  T. VanZandt,et al.  F-region nightglow emissions of atomic oxygen: 1. Theory , 1966 .

[162]  F. Allum,et al.  Rocket measurement of midlatitude airglow and particle precipitation , 1965 .

[163]  S. Silverman,et al.  A study of the diurnal variations of the 5577 Å [OI] airglow emission at selected IGY stations , 1970 .

[164]  A. J. Hundhausen.  Interplanetary neutral hydrogen and the radius of the heliosphere , 1968 .

[165]  H. L. Buijs,et al.  SPECTRUM OF THE NIGHT AIRGLOW BETWEEN 3 AND 4 MICRONS. , 1968 .

[166]  A. W. Peterson.  Thermal Radiation from Interplanetary Dust. , 1963 .

[167]  F. D. Findlay.  Relative band intensities in the atmospheric and infrared atmospheric systems of molecular oxygen , 1969 .

[168]  N. K. Reay,et al.  Radial Velocity Measurements on the Zodiacal Light Spectrum , 1968, Nature.

[169]  R. Greer,et al.  A rocket-borne photometric investigation of the oxygen lines at 5577 Å and 6300 Å, the sodium D-lines and the continuum at 5300 Å in the night airglow , 1967 .

[170]  F. S. Johnson,et al.  The distribution of interplanetary hydrogen , 1963 .

[171]  C. Kaiser.  The Thermal Emission of the F Corona , 1970 .

[172]  L. Paffrath,et al.  Observations of the 6300 Å OI emission of the nightglow with a pressure scanning Fabry-Perot interferometer , 1964 .

[173]  R. Meier,et al.  Distribution of sodium in the daytime upper atmosphere as measured by a rocket experiment , 1967 .

[174]  A. W. Harrison.  The night airglow spectrum 1.02μ−1.13 μ , 1969 .

[175]  N. N. Shefov.  Hydroxyl emission of the upper atmosphere—II: Effects of a sunlit atmosphere , 1969 .

[176]  E. B. Armstrong.  Doppler shifts in the wavelength of the OI λ6300 line in the night airglow , 1969 .