Arab Americans' Motives for Using the Internet as a Functional Media Alternative and Their Perceptions of U.S. Public Opinion

This exploratory study employed uses and gratifications theory to understand Arab Americans’ salient motives for using the internet and whether the internet served as a functional alternative to other media to satisfy Arab Americans’ information-seeking and interpersonal needs. Spiral of silence theory also was used to investigate the relationship between Arab Americans’ perceptions of U.S. public opinion and their motives for using the internet. Results from an online questionnaire survey (N= 124) indicated that information seeking was the most salient motive for using the internet and that the internet did serve as a functional alternative, with a significant percentage of the internet sources used being foreign based. There was, however, no relationship between Arab Americans’ perceptions of U.S. public opinion and their motives for using the internet. The findings are discussed with respect to the use of the internet by members of this marginalized cultural group.

[1]  Miriam J. Metzger,et al.  Argument and Decision Making in Computer‐Mediated Groups , 2004 .

[2]  Dhavan V. Shah,et al.  Modeling Internet Effects on Civic Participation , 2005 .

[3]  Saonee Sarker,et al.  Knowledge Transfer and Collaboration in Distributed U.S.-Thai Teams , 2005, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[4]  Sue Barnes,et al.  Computer‐mediated communication in the organization , 1994 .

[5]  Joseph A. Bonito,et al.  Information processing and exchange in mediated groups: Interdependence and interaction , 2003 .

[6]  K. Russell Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People , 2008 .

[7]  Jennifer L. Gibbs,et al.  The Role of Anticipated Future Interaction, Self-Disclosure, and Perceived Success in Internet Dating , 2006 .

[8]  Annika Hylmo,et al.  Alternative Organizing Communities: Collectivist Organizing, Telework, Home-Based Internet Businesses, and Online Communities , 2004 .

[9]  Carol Waseleski Gender and the Use of Exclamation Points in Computer-Mediated Communication: An Analysis of Exclamations Posted to Two Electronic Discussion Lists , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[10]  Barbara L. Ley Vive Les Roses!: The Architecture of Commitment in an Online Pregnancy and Mothering Group , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[11]  Steven G. Jones Cybersociety 2.0: revisiting computer-mediated communication and community , 1998 .

[12]  Bret R. Shaw,et al.  Experiences of Women with Breast Cancer: Exchanging Social Support over the CHESS Computer Network , 2000, Journal of health communication.

[13]  Asako Miura,et al.  Psychological and Social Influences on Blog Writing: An Online Survey of Blog Authors in Japan , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[14]  L. Staeheli,et al.  Citizenship, identity and transnational migration: Arab immigrants to the United States , 2004 .

[15]  Kirk W. Duthler The Politeness of Requests Made Via Email and Voicemail: Support for the Hyperpersonal Model , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[16]  Allison S. Christian Contesting the myth of the ‘wicked stepmother’: narrative analysis of an online stepfamily support group , 2005 .

[17]  Ronald E. Rice,et al.  The Internet, 1995-2000 , 2001, ArXiv.

[18]  N. Baym Interpreting Soap Operas and Creating Community: Inside a Computer-Mediated Fan Culture , 1993 .

[19]  Jennifer Bing-Canar,et al.  Reading the Media and Myself: Experiences in Critical Media Literacy with Young Arab-American Women , 1998, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society.

[20]  Stephen A. Rains,et al.  A Sign of the Times: An Analysis of Organizational Members' Email Signatures , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[21]  S. Matei,et al.  Real and Virtual Social Ties , 2001 .

[22]  Identity commitments in personal stories of mental illness on the internet , 2005 .

[23]  G. O'keefe,et al.  More Than Just Talk: Uses, Gratifications, and the Telephone , 1995 .

[24]  David W. Park,et al.  Interpersonal Effects in Computer-Mediated Interaction , 1994 .

[25]  Dmitri Williams,et al.  On and Off the 'Net: Scales for Social Capital in an Online Era , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[26]  Kelly S. Ervin,et al.  Gender and the Internet: Women Communicating and Men Searching , 2001 .

[27]  Jack G. Shaheen The TV Arab , 1976 .

[28]  Newspaper Use and Gratification in Hawaii , 1983 .

[29]  Tom Kelleher,et al.  Organizational Blogs and the Human Voice: Relational Strategies and Relational Outcomes , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[30]  M. Dutta,et al.  Health Orientation and Disease State as Predictors of Online Health Support Group Use , 2007, Health communication.

[31]  Andrew J. Flanagin,et al.  Group performance and collaborative technology: a longitudinal and multilevel analysis of information quality, contribution equity, and members' satisfaction in computer‐mediated groups , 2004 .

[32]  Xiaomei Cai,et al.  Is the computer a functional alternative to traditional media? , 2004 .

[33]  Patricia R. Webb Cybersociety: Computer-mediated communication and community , 1996 .

[34]  Eun-Ju Lee,et al.  Effects of Gendered Language on Gender Stereotyping in Computer‐Mediated Communication: The Moderating Role of Depersonalization and Gender‐Role Orientation , 2007 .

[35]  Michael Parsons,et al.  Exploring Web Usage and Selection Criteria Among Male and Female Students1 , 2005, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[36]  Heather C. Way,et al.  “What Happened to our Audience?” Radio and New Technology Uses and Gratifications Among Young Adult Users , 2007 .

[37]  Joseph B. Walther,et al.  Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words? , 2001, Commun. Res..

[38]  E. Noelle-Neumann The Spiral of Silence A Theory of Public Opinion , 1974 .

[39]  H. Ono,et al.  Gender and the Internet , 2003 .

[40]  Zhou He,et al.  Perceived Characteristics, Perceived Needs, and Perceived Popularity , 2002, Commun. Res..

[41]  Thomas E. Ruggiero Uses and Gratifications Theory in the 21st Century , 2000 .

[42]  Zonians in cyberspace: The imagining of individual, community and nation on the Panama‐L listserve , 2002 .

[43]  Eun-Ju Lee,et al.  Deindividuation Effects on Group Polarization in Computer-Mediated Communication: The Role of Group Identification, Public-Self-Awareness, and Perceived Argument Quality , 2007 .

[44]  Timothy B. Rumbough The development and maintenance of interpersonal relationships through computer‐mediated communication , 2001 .

[45]  Osei Appiah,et al.  Effects of Ethnic Identification on Web Browsers’ Attitudes toward and Navigational Patterns on Race-Targeted Sites , 2004, Commun. Res..

[46]  Hernando González Mass Media and the Spiral of Silence: The Philippines from Marcos to Aquino , 1988 .

[47]  Jiali Ye,et al.  Traditional and Online Support Networks in the Cross-Cultural Adaptation of Chinese International Students in the United States , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[48]  J. W. Jordan A virtual death and a real dilemma: Identity, trust, and community in cyberspace , 2005 .

[49]  T. Benson Rhetoric, civility, and community: Political debate on computer bulletin boards , 1996 .

[50]  P. Howard,et al.  Days and Nights on the Internet , 2001 .

[51]  R. LaRose,et al.  A Social Cognitive Theory of Internet Uses and Gratifications: Toward a New Model of Media Attendance , 2004 .

[52]  Kazuya Hara,et al.  Computer-Mediated Relationship Development: A Cross-Cultural Comparison , 2005, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[53]  Eun-Ju Lee,et al.  When and How Does Depersonalization Increase Conformity to Group Norms in Computer-Mediated Communication? , 2006, Commun. Res..

[54]  Robert L. Stevenson,et al.  Children with AIDS Attending Public School: An Analysis of the Spiral of Silence , 1994 .

[55]  Louis Leung Gratifications, chronic loneliness and internet use , 2001 .

[56]  Cliff Lampe,et al.  The Benefits of Facebook "Friends: " Social Capital and College Students' Use of Online Social Network Sites , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[57]  A. Rubin,et al.  Predictors of Internet Use , 2000 .

[58]  Heidi Campbell,et al.  Considering spiritual dimensions within computer-mediated communication studies , 2005, New Media Soc..

[59]  Philip J. Auter,et al.  Identifying with Arabic Journalists , 2005 .

[60]  Joan Waldvogel,et al.  Greetings and Closings in Workplace Email , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[61]  Kevin B. Wright,et al.  Motives for communication within on‐line support groups and antecedents for interpersonal use , 2002 .

[62]  Andrew L. Mendelson,et al.  An Exploratory Study of Reality Appeal: Uses and Gratifications of Reality TV Shows , 2007 .

[63]  John C. Paolillo,et al.  Gender and genre variation in weblogs , 2006 .

[64]  Joseph B. Walther,et al.  Misattribution in virtual groups : The effects of member distribution on self-serving bias and partner blame , 2007 .

[65]  S. Matei,et al.  The Internet in the Communication Infrastructure of Urban Residential Communities: Macro- or Mesolinkage? , 2003 .

[66]  Barry Wellman,et al.  Searching for Culture - High and Low , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[67]  Suzanne Pingree,et al.  Effects of Insightful Disclosure Within Computer Mediated Support Groups on Women With Breast Cancer , 2006, Health communication.

[68]  Patrick B. O'Sullivan Computer networks and political participation: Santa Monica's teledemocracy project , 1995 .

[69]  Keith N. Hampton,et al.  Does the Internet Increase, Decrease, or Supplement Social Capital? , 2001 .

[70]  L. Tidwell,et al.  Computer-Mediated Communication Effects on Disclosure, Impressions, and Interpersonal Evaluations: Getting to Know One Another a Bit at a Time , 2002 .

[71]  Joseph A. Bonito,et al.  Information Processing and Exchange in Mediated Groups , 2003 .

[72]  Waipeng Lee,et al.  Polychronicity, the Internet, and the Mass Media: A Singapore Study , 2005, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[73]  Andrew J. Flanagin IM Online: Instant Messaging Use Among College Students , 2005 .

[74]  J. Tsao,et al.  Readership of Free Community Papers as a Source of Advertising Information: A Uses and Gratifications Perspective , 2004 .

[75]  T. Postmes,et al.  The Formation of Group Norms in Computer-Mediated Communication , 2000 .

[76]  Dara N. Byrne,et al.  Public Discourse, Community Concerns, and Civic Engagement: Exploring Black Social Networking Traditions on BlackPlanet.com , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[77]  Adam Arvidsson,et al.  ‘Quality singles’: internet dating and the work of fantasy , 2006, New Media Soc..

[78]  Steven S. Vrooman Flamethrowers, Slashers and Witches: Gendered Communication in a Virtual Community , 2001 .

[79]  J. Walther Computer-Mediated Communication , 1996 .

[80]  Chang-Hoan Cho,et al.  INTERNET USES AND GRATIFICATIONS: A Structural Equation Model of Interactive Advertising , 2005 .

[81]  Panayiotis Zaphiris,et al.  Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[82]  André Brock,et al.  "A Belief in Humanity is a Belief in Colored Men: " Using Culture to Span the Digital Divide , 2005, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[83]  Jennifer A. Samp,et al.  Presenting and monitoring a gender‐defined self on the internet , 2003 .

[84]  Bruce Bimber Bimber Measuring the Gender Gap on the Internet , 2003 .

[85]  Philip J. Auter,et al.  Portable social groups: willingness to communicate, interpersonal communication gratifications, and cell phone use among young adults , 2007, Int. J. Mob. Commun..

[86]  Frances Cresser,et al.  Women's experiences of on-line e-zine publication , 2001 .

[87]  K. A. Hill,et al.  Computer-Mediated Political Communication: The USENET and Political Communities , 1997 .

[88]  Kurt Lindemann,et al.  Live(s) Online: Narrative Performance, Presence, and Community in LiveJournal.com , 2005 .

[89]  S. Herring,et al.  Assessing Gender Authenticity in Computer-Mediated Language Use , 2004 .

[90]  J. Harwood Age Identification, Social Identity Gratifications, and Television Viewing. , 1999 .

[91]  Lori Boyer,et al.  Managing Impressions in a Virtual Environment: Is Ethnic Diversity a Self-Presentation Strategy for Colleges and Universities? , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[92]  John L. Sherry Toward an etiology of media use motivations: the role of temperament in media use , 2001 .

[93]  Keith N. Hampton,et al.  Neighboring in Netville: How the Internet Supports Community and Social Capital in a Wired Suburb , 2003 .

[94]  Anna K. Turnage,et al.  Email Flaming Behaviors and Organizational Conflict , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[95]  Malcolm R. Parks Making Friends in Cyberspace , 1996, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[96]  Douglas A. Ferguson,et al.  The World Wide Web as a Functional Alternative to Television , 2000 .

[97]  Louis Leung,et al.  More Than Just Talk on the Move: Uses and Gratifications of the Cellular Phone , 2000 .

[98]  Luca Tateo,et al.  The Italian Extreme Right On-line Network: An Exploratory Study Using an Integrated Social Network Analysis and Content Analysis Approach , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[99]  Samuel Ebersole,et al.  Uses and Gratifications of the Web among Students , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[100]  Kevin B. Wright,et al.  Social support satisfaction, on‐line communication apprehension, and perceived life stress within computer‐mediated support groups , 2000 .

[101]  Karianne Skovholt,et al.  Email Copies in Workplace Interaction , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[102]  Louise Cainkar No Longer Invisible: Arab and Muslim Exclusion After September 11 , 2002 .

[103]  Kevin B. Wright,et al.  On‐line relational maintenance strategies and perceptions of partners within exclusively internet‐based and primarily internet‐based relationships , 2004 .

[104]  K. T. Wulfemeyer Use of Anonymous Sources in Journalism , 1983 .

[105]  Lee Rainie,et al.  The Commons of the Tragedy: How the Internet Was Used by Millions after the Terror Attacks To Grieve, Console, Share News, and Debate the Country's Response. , 2001 .

[106]  H. Himmelweit,et al.  Television and the child : an empirical study of the effect of television on the young , 1959 .

[107]  Michael Gilding,et al.  ‘I’ve Never Clicked this Much with Anyone in My Life’: Trust and Hyperpersonal Communication in Online Friendships , 2004, New Media Soc..

[108]  Claire H. Procopio,et al.  Do You Know What It Means to Miss New Orleans? Internet Communication, Geographic Community, and Social Capital in Crisis , 2007 .

[109]  Mark Giese,et al.  Constructing a Virtual Geography: Narratives of Space in a Text-Based Environment , 1998 .

[110]  Roya Ayman,et al.  Communication Medium and Member Familiarity , 2005 .

[111]  Jiali Ye,et al.  Acculturative Stress and Use of the Internet among East Asian International Students in the United States , 2005, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[112]  Thomas J. Johnson,et al.  A Web for all reasons: uses and gratifications of Internet components for political information , 2004, Telematics Informatics.

[113]  Kevin B. Wright,et al.  On‐line support groups: An investigation of relationships among source credibility, dimensions of relational communication, and perceptions of emotional support , 2002 .

[114]  Osei Appiah,et al.  Americans Online: Differences in Surfing and Evaluating Race-Targeted Web Site: by Black and White Users , 2003 .

[115]  Douglas A. Ferguson,et al.  Uses and Gratifications of MP3 Players by College Students: Are iPods More Popular than Radio? , 2007 .

[116]  Nicole B. Ellison,et al.  Managing Impressions Online: Self-Presentation Processes in the Online Dating Environment , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[117]  Alek Tarkowski,et al.  Rzeczpospolita blogów [Republic of Blog]: Examining Polish Bloggers Through Content Analysis , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[118]  Teresa M. Harrison,et al.  Democracy and New Communication Technologies , 2001 .

[119]  David A. Huffaker,et al.  Gender, Identity, and Language Use in Teenage Blogs , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[120]  E. Noelle-Neumann The Theory of Public Opinion: The Concept of the Spiral of Silence , 1991 .

[121]  Costas Panagopoulos The Polls-Trends Arab and Muslim Americans and Islam in the aftermath of 9/11 , 2006 .

[122]  R. Watson,et al.  Computer-Mediated Communication and Majority Influence , 1998 .

[123]  M. Waltman Stratagems and heuristics in the recruitment of children into communities of hate: The fabric of our future nightmares , 2003 .

[124]  J. Richardson Uses and Gratifications of Agnostic Refuge: Case Study of a Skeptical Online Congregation , 2003 .

[125]  Justine Cassell,et al.  The Language of Online Intercultural Community Formation , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[126]  J. Minnebo Psychological distress, perceived social support, and television viewing for reasons of companionship: A test of the compensation hypothesis in a population of crime victims , 2005 .

[127]  Marya L. Doerfel,et al.  Internet-Based Communication in Crisis Management , 2003 .

[128]  Thomas J. Johnson,et al.  Online and in the Know: Uses and Gratifications of the Web for Political Information , 2002 .

[129]  Anne Hewling Culture in the Online Class: Using Message Analysis to Look Beyond Nationality-Based Frames of Reference , 2005, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[130]  Jorge Peña,et al.  Effects of Geographic Distribution on Dominance Perceptions in Computer-Mediated Groups , 2007, Commun. Res..

[131]  J. Downing,et al.  Mediating terrorism: text and protest in interpretations of The Siege , 2002 .

[132]  Carrie La Ferle,et al.  Cultural influences on internet motivations and communication syles: a comparison of Korean and US consumers , 2006 .

[133]  Barbara K. Kaye,et al.  Uses and gratifications of the World Wide Web: From couch potato to web potato , 1998 .

[134]  Tracey Bretag,et al.  Developing 'Third Space' Interculturality Using Computer-Mediated Communication , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[135]  Christoph Klimmt,et al.  Gender and Computer Games: Exploring Females' Dislikes , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[136]  Vidhi A. Chaudhri,et al.  Communicating Corporate Social Responsibility on the Internet , 2007 .

[137]  Michael McDevitt,et al.  Spiral of Moderation: Opinion Expression in Computer-Mediated Discussion , 2003 .

[138]  Charles Ess,et al.  Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Religion and Computer-Mediated Communication , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[139]  Ulla K. Bunz,et al.  The rules of virtual groups: Trust, liking, and performance in computer-mediated communication , 2005 .

[140]  Elizabeth M. Perse,et al.  The utility of home computers and media use: Implications of multimedia and connectivity , 1998 .

[141]  Ann Peterson Bishop,et al.  The internet for empowerment of minority and marginalized users , 2004, New Media Soc..

[142]  Shanyang Zhao,et al.  Do Internet Users Have More Social Ties? A Call for Differentiated Analyses of Internet Use , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[143]  Philip Garland,et al.  Insights Into U.S. Racial Hierarchy: Racial Profiling, News Sources, and September 11 , 2003 .

[144]  Yeslam Al-Saggaf,et al.  The Online Public Sphere in the Arab World: The War in Iraq on the Al Arabiya Website , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[145]  Sarah Pedersen,et al.  Gender Differences in British Blogging , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[146]  Donald G. Ellis,et al.  Online Argument Between Israeli Jews and Palestinians , 2007 .

[147]  M. Slater Reinforcing Spirals: The Mutual Influence of Media Selectivity and Media Effects and Their Impact on Individual Behavior and Social Identity , 2007 .

[148]  Stephen A. Rains,et al.  Leveling the Organizational Playing Field—Virtually , 2005, Commun. Res..

[149]  S. Stern Expressions of Identity Online: Prominent Features and Gender Differences in Adolescents' World Wide Web Home Pages , 2004 .

[150]  Marina Umaschi Bers,et al.  Fostering Civic Engagement by Building a Virtual City , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[151]  J. Walther,et al.  Relational communication in computer-mediated interaction , 1990 .

[152]  K. Wright Computer‐mediated support groups: An examination of relationships among social support, perceived stress, and coping strategies , 1999 .

[153]  K. Wright,et al.  Perceptions of on‐line support providers: An examination of perceived homophily, source credibility, communication and social support within on‐line support groups , 2000 .

[154]  J. Walther Anticipated Ongoing Interaction Versus Channel Effects on Relational Communication in Computer-Mediated Interaction , 1994 .

[155]  R. Daft,et al.  Media Symbolism, Media Richness, and Media Choice in Organizations , 1987 .

[156]  Jack G. Shaheen Arab Images in American Comic Books , 1994 .

[157]  R. Rubin,et al.  Internet and face‐to‐face communication: Not functional alternatives , 1998 .

[158]  P. Boczkowski Mutual Shaping of Users and Technologies in a National Virtual Community , 1999 .

[159]  B. Edwards Yankee Pashas and Buried Women: Containing Abundance in 1950s Hollywood Orientalism , 2013, Film & History: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Film and Television Studies.

[160]  Mohan J. Dutta-Bergman The Antecedents of Community-Oriented Internet Use: Community Participation and Community Satisfaction , 2005, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[161]  Roger C. Aden,et al.  Northern Exposure's Sense of Place: Constructing and Marginalizing the Matriarchal Community , 1995 .

[162]  Denise M. Bostdorff The internet rhetoric of the Ku Klux Klan: A case study in web site community building run amok , 2004 .

[163]  J. Hottois The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion—Our Social Skin . By Noelle-Neumann Elisabeth. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. Pp. xi + 184. $20.00.) , 1985, American Political Science Review.

[164]  Rasha A. Abdulla Islam, Jihad, and Terrorism in Post-9/11 Arabic Discussion Boards , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[165]  J. Sproule,et al.  Progressive propaganda critics and the magic bullet myth , 1989 .

[166]  Debra Merskin The Construction of Arabs as Enemies: Post-September 11 Discourse of George W. Bush , 2004 .

[167]  Kevin M. Carragee,et al.  Media, movements, and the quest for social justice , 1998 .

[168]  Fay Sudweeks,et al.  Culture and Computer-Mediated Communication: Toward New Understandings , 2005, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[169]  H. Denis Wu,et al.  Web Site Use and News Topic and Type , 2002 .

[170]  Jennifer Preece,et al.  Online Communities: Design, Theory, and Practice , 2005, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[171]  J. Walther Group and Interpersonal Effects in International Computer-Mediated Collaboration , 1997 .

[172]  Michael Stefanone,et al.  Writing for Friends and Family: The Interpersonal Nature of Blogs , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[173]  Stephen A. Rains The Impact of Anonymity on Perceptions of Source Credibility and Influence in Computer-Mediated Group Communication: A Test of Two Competing Hypotheses , 2007, Commun. Res..

[174]  Susan M. Wildermuth,et al.  We Met on the Net: Exploring the Perceptions of Online Romantic Relationship Participants , 2007 .

[175]  S. Bird Chatting on Cynthia's porch: Creating community in an e‐mail fan group , 1999 .

[176]  N. Baym Tune In, Log On: Soaps, Fandom, and Online Community , 1999 .

[177]  Ananda Mitra,et al.  Voices of the Marginalized on the Internet: Examples From a Website for Women of South Asia , 2004 .

[178]  Wyke Stommel,et al.  Mein Nick bin ich! Nicknames in a German Forum on Eating Disorders , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[179]  Sabine C. Koch,et al.  Constructing Gender in Chat Groups , 2005 .

[180]  Gary Pizante,et al.  Predictors of motivation to use computer‐mediated political communication systems , 1986 .

[181]  Robin L. Nabi,et al.  Emotional and Cognitive Predictors of the Enjoyment of Reality-Based and Fictional Television Programming: An Elaboration of the Uses and Gratifications Perspective , 2006 .

[182]  Keith N. Hampton,et al.  Long Distance Community in the Network Society , 2001 .

[183]  Kevin Wise,et al.  Moderation, Response Rate, and Message Interactivity: Features of Online Communities and Their Effects on Intent to Participate , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[184]  Michelle Shumate,et al.  Trouble in a Geographically Distributed Virtual Network Organization: Organizing Tensions in Continental Direct Action Network , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[185]  Stephen D. Perry,et al.  Inhibiting Speech through Exemplar Distribution: Can We Predict a Spiral of Silence? , 2000 .

[186]  Teresa A. Myers,et al.  The Polls—Trends Twenty Years of Public Opinion about Global Warming , 2007 .

[187]  Michael Rabby Relational Maintenance and the Influence of Commitment in Online and Offline Relationships , 2007 .

[188]  Artemio Ramirez,et al.  The Effect of Anticipated Future Interaction and Initial Impression Valence on Relational Communication in Computer-Mediated Interaction , 2007 .

[189]  Kristine L. Nowak,et al.  AA online: the enactment of supportive Computer Mediated Communication , 2005 .

[190]  Eszter Hargittai,et al.  The Social, Political, Economic, and Cultural Dimensions of Search Engines: An Introduction , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[191]  Jay F. Nunamaker,et al.  Communication Concurrency and the New Media , 1993 .

[192]  Tara M. Emmers-Sommer,et al.  Predictors of Relationship Satisfaction in Online Romantic Relationships , 2006 .

[193]  Andrea L. Kavanaugh,et al.  The Impact of Community Computer Networks on Social Capital and Community Involvement , 2001 .

[194]  E. Katz,et al.  Uses and Gratifications Research , 2019, The International Encyclopedia of Journalism Studies.

[195]  J. Walther Impression Development in Computer-Mediated Interaction. , 1993 .

[196]  Seong-Jae Min,et al.  Online vs. Face-to-Face Deliberation: Effects on Civic Engagement , 2007, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[197]  Susan Carol Losh,et al.  Gender and Educational Digital Chasms in Computer and Internet Access and Use over Time: 1983-2000 , 2003 .

[198]  R. Rice,et al.  Electronic Emotion , 1987 .