Energy storage and Gramians of ladder filter realisations

An invariant of the controllability Gramian K and observability Gramian W, namely tr(KW), is expressed as an integral over frequency of the transfer function group delay weighted by power gain. This formula has strong connections with the old theory linking energy storage, sensitivity and group delay in LC networks. The Gramians of a doubly-terminated LC ladder filter realisation are discussed using this energy storage interpretation.