Spatial frames for motor control would be commensurate with spatial frames for vision and proprioception, but what about control of energy flows?

The model identifies a spatial coordinate frame within which the sensorimotor apparatus produces movement. Its spatial nature simplifies its coupling with spatial reference frames used concurrently by vision and proprioception. While the positional reference frame addresses the performance of spatial tasks, it seems to have little to say about movements involving energy expenditure as the principle component of the task.

[1]  C. Pratt,et al.  Locomotion evoked by brain stem stimulation: occurrence without phasic segmental afferent input , 1979, Brain Research.

[2]  P. Viviani,et al.  Trajectory determines movement dynamics , 1982, Neuroscience.

[3]  A. G. Feldman.  Superposition of motor programs—I. Rhythmic forearm movements in man , 1980, Neuroscience.

[4]  A. Patla,et al.  Visual control of limb trajectory over obstacles during locomotion: effect of obstacle height and width , 1993 .

[5]  J. Murphy,et al.  Spatial organization of precentral cortex in awake primates. I. Somatosensory inputs. , 1978, Journal of neurophysiology.

[6]  A Ward,et al.  Relative displacements in muscle and tendon during human arm movements. , 1987, The Journal of physiology.

[7]  H. Cruse,et al.  Control of Three- and Four-Joint Arm Movement: Strategies for a Manipulator With Redundant Degrees of Freedom. , 1993, Journal of motor behavior.

[8]  J. Hellgren,et al.  A physiological study of the monosynaptic reflex responses of cat spinal α-motoneurons after partial lumbosacral deafferentation , 1989, Brain Research.

[9]  E. Bizzi,et al.  Human arm trajectory formation. , 1982, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[10]  K. V. Bayev.  Central locomotor program for the cat's hindlimb , 1978, Neuroscience.

[11]  O. Kiehn,et al.  Bistability of alpha‐motoneurones in the decerebrate cat and in the acute spinal cat after intravenous 5‐hydroxytryptophan. , 1988, The Journal of physiology.

[12]  John F. Kalaska,et al.  Spatial coding of movement: A hypothesis concerning the coding of movement direction by motor cortical populations , 1983 .

[13]  Jack M. Winters,et al.  Analysis of Fundamental Human Movement Patterns Through the Use of In-Depth Antagonistic Muscle Models , 1985, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[14]  G. Gottlieb,et al.  Compliance of single joints: elastic and plastic characteristics. , 1988, Journal of neurophysiology.

[15]  C. Erkelens,et al.  Dependence of autogenic and heterogenic stretch reflexes on pre‐load activity in the human arm. , 1991, The Journal of physiology.

[16]  G. L. Gottlieb,et al.  Reconstruction of shifting elbow joint compliant characteristics during fast and slow movements , 1991, Neuroscience.

[17]  Edward E. Smith,et al.  An Invitation to cognitive science , 1997 .

[18]  Gerale E. Loeb,et al.  Strategies for the control of studies of voluntary movements with one mechanical degree of freedom , 1989, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[19]  L. Jami.  Golgi tendon organs in mammalian skeletal muscle: functional properties and central actions. , 1992, Physiological reviews.

[20]  Daniel E. Whitney,et al.  Resolved Motion Rate Control of Manipulators and Human Prostheses , 1969 .

[21]  W. J. Nowack.  Neurobiology of Neocortex , 1989, Neurology.

[22]  S. Grillner.  Locomotion in vertebrates: central mechanisms and reflex interaction. , 1975, Physiological reviews.

[23]  T. Flash,et al.  Moving gracefully: quantitative theories of motor coordination , 1987, Trends in Neurosciences.

[24]  E. Thelen,et al.  The transition to reaching: mapping intention and intrinsic dynamics. , 1993, Child development.

[25]  S. Grillner,et al.  Peripheral control of the cat's step cycle. II. Entrainment of the central pattern generators for locomotion by sinusoidal hip movements during "fictive locomotion.". , 1983, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[26]  E. Knudsen,et al.  Horizontal and vertical components of head movement are controlled by distinct neural circuits in the barn owl , 1990, Nature.

[27]  Peter D. Neilson,et al.  Adaptive model theory , 1992 .

[28]  E. Saltzman,et al.  Steady-state and perturbed rhythmical movements: a dynamical analysis. , 1991, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[29]  J. Stephens,et al.  Progress in Clinical Neurophysiology, Vol 9 Motor Unit Types, Recruitment and Plasticity in Health and Disease , 1982 .

[30]  H. Haken.  Synergetics: an Introduction, Nonequilibrium Phase Transitions and Self-organization in Physics, Chemistry, and Biology , 1977 .

[31]  C. Gielen,et al.  Coordination of arm muscles during flexion and supination: Application of the tensor analysis approach , 1986, Neuroscience.

[32]  D. Burke,et al.  Does the nervous system depend on kinesthetic information to control natural limb movements , 1992 .

[33]  R. Creed,et al.  Reflex Activity of the Spinal Cord , 1933 .

[34]  K E Popov,et al.  Changes of posture during transient perturbations in microgravity. , 1985, Aviation, space, and environmental medicine.

[35]  D Guitton,et al.  Movement of neural activity on the superior colliculus motor map during gaze shifts. , 1991, Science.

[36]  F.C.T. van der Helm,et al.  A finite element musculoskeletal model of the shoulder mechanism. , 1994 .

[37]  J. Stein.  The representation of egocentric space in the posterior parietal cortex. , 1992, The Behavioral and brain sciences.

[38]  R. L. Linscheid,et al.  Muscles across the elbow joint: a biomechanical analysis. , 1981, Journal of biomechanics.

[39]  Y. Lamarre,et al.  Rapid elbow flexion in the absence of proprioceptive and cutaneous feedback. , 1987, Human neurobiology.

[40]  E. Evarts,et al.  Relation of pyramidal tract activity to force exerted during voluntary movement. , 1968, Journal of neurophysiology.

[41]  E. Bizzi,et al.  Linear combinations of primitives in vertebrate motor control. , 1994, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[42]  J F Soechting,et al.  Moving in three-dimensional space: frames of reference, vectors, and coordinate systems. , 1992, Annual review of neuroscience.

[43]  H. Zelaznik,et al.  Motor-output variability: a theory for the accuracy of rapid motor acts. , 1979, Psychological review.

[44]  G. Gottlieb,et al.  Strategies for the control of voluntary movements with one mechanical degree of freedom , 1989, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[45]  J. Sanes,et al.  Kinematics and end-point control of arm movements are modified by unexpected changes in viscous loading , 1986, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[46]  I. A. Boyd,et al.  Control of dynamic and static nuclear bag fibres and nuclear chain fibres by gamma and beta axons in isolated cat muscle spindels. , 1977, The Journal of physiology.

[47]  H Johansson,et al.  Fusimotor reflexes influencing secondary muscle spindle afferents from flexor and extensor muscles in the hind limb of the cat. , 1991, Journal de physiologie.

[48]  R. F. Ker,et al.  Ratios of cross-sectional areas of muscles and their tendons in a healthy human forearm. , 1991, Journal of anatomy.

[49]  J. McIntyre,et al.  Servo Hypotheses for the Biological Control of Movement. , 1993, Journal of motor behavior.

[50]  R. Stein,et al.  Resetting of tremor by mechanical perturbations: A comparison of essential tremor and parkinsonian tremor , 1981, Annals of neurology.

[51]  S. Grillner,et al.  Peripheral control of the spinal pattern generators for locomotion in cat , 1978, Brain Research.

[52]  J. Flanagan,et al.  Control of Trajectory Modifications in Target-Directed Reaching. , 1993, Journal of motor behavior.

[53]  J. M. Winters,et al.  SYNTHESIZED NEURAL/BIOCHEMICAL MODELS USED FOR REALISTIC 3-D TASKS ARE MORE LIKELY TO PROVIDE ANSWERS , 1992 .

[54]  M L Latash,et al.  An equilibrium-point model of electromyographic patterns during single-joint movements based on experimentally reconstructed control signals. , 1994, Journal of electromyography and kinesiology : official journal of the International Society of Electrophysiological Kinesiology.

[55]  Anatol G. Feldman,et al.  Fundamentals of motor control, kinesthesia and spinal neurons: In search of a theory , 1992 .

[56]  S. Adamovich.  HOW DOES THE NERVOUS SYSTEM CONTROL THE EQUILIBRIUM TRAJECTORY , 1992 .

[57]  J Hore,et al.  Task‐dependent changes in gain of the reflex response to imperceptible perturbations of joint position in man. , 1990, The Journal of physiology.

[58]  A. G. Feldman,et al.  The patterns of control signals underlying elbow joint movements in humans , 1993, Neuroscience Letters.

[59]  J. Desmedt,et al.  New Developments in Electromyography and Clinical Neurophysiology , 1973 .

[60]  K. Pribram.  Brain and Perception: Holonomy and Structure in Figural Processing , 1991 .

[61]  O. I. Fukson,et al.  The spinal frog takes into account the scheme of its body during the wiping reflex. , 1980, Science.

[62]  B L Day,et al.  Accurate repositioning of the human thumb against unpredictable dynamic loads is dependent upon peripheral feed‐back , 1982, The Journal of physiology.

[63]  Issachar Gilad,et al.  Three styles of hand movements: a possible relation to three kinds of familial handedness , 1992 .

[64]  Robert M. May,et al.  Simple mathematical models with very complicated dynamics , 1976, Nature.

[65]  Stephen Grossberg,et al.  Neural dynamics of adaptive sensory-motor control , 1986 .

[66]  Z. Hasan,et al.  Is stiffness the mainspring of posture and movement , 1992 .

[67]  G. C. Agarwal,et al.  MOVEMENT CONTROL HYPOTHESES : A LESSON FROM HISTORY , 1992 .

[68]  C. Prablanc,et al.  Automatic control during hand reaching at undetected two-dimensional target displacements. , 1992, Journal of neurophysiology.

[69]  J. Smeets.  What do fast goal-directed movements teach us about equilibrium-point control? , 1992 .

[70]  T. Nichols.  A biomechanical perspective on spinal mechanisms of coordinated muscular action: an architecture principle. , 1994, Acta anatomica.

[71]  E. Evarts.  The motor system in neurobiology , 1985 .

[72]  D. Purpura,et al.  Neurophysiological basis of normal and abnormal motor activities , 1967 .

[73]  N. Hogan,et al.  Does the nervous system use equilibrium-point control to guide single and multiple joint movements? , 1992, The Behavioral and brain sciences.

[74]  J. Massion,et al.  Stance and Motion: Facts and Concepts , 1989 .

[75]  E. Taub,et al.  Deafferentation in monkeys: Pointing at a target without visual feedback , 1975, Experimental Neurology.

[76]  M. Jeannerod.  The representing brain: Neural correlates of motor intention and imagery , 1994, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[77]  D S Goodin,et al.  Evidence that the long-latency stretch responses of the human wrist extensor muscle involve a transcerebral pathway. , 1990, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[78]  N. A. Bernshteĭn,et al.  Human motor actions : Bernstein reassessed , 1984 .

[79]  Francis G. Lestienne,et al.  Posture et gestuelle en microgravité: un outil d'investigation pour la physiologie sensori-motrice , 1994 .

[80]  T. Roberts.  RHYTHMIC EXCITATION OF A STRETCH REFLEX, REVEALING (A) HYSTERESIS AND (B) A DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE RESPONSES TO PULLING AND TO STRETCHING. , 1963, Quarterly journal of experimental physiology and cognate medical sciences.

[81]  A. G. Feldman.  Superposition of motor programs—II. Rapid forearm flexion in man , 1980, Neuroscience.

[82]  S. Grillner.  The role of muscle stiffness in meeting the changing postural and locomotor requirements for force development by the ankle extensors. , 1972, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[83]  S. Grillner,et al.  The effect of dorsal root transection on the efferent motor pattern in the cat's hindlimb during locomotion. , 1984, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[84]  N. A. Bemstein.  The problem of interrelation between coordination and localization , 1935 .

[85]  A Smith,et al.  High-frequency oscillations as indicators of neural control mechanisms in human respiration, mastication, and speech. , 1990, Journal of neurophysiology.

[86]  Issachar Gilad,et al.  The motoric role of the right cerebral hemisphere: performance analysis of micromovements , 1991 .

[87]  S. Grillner,et al.  Visuomotor coordination in reaching and locomotion. , 1989, Science.

[88]  O. Bock.  Load compensation in human goal-directed arm movements , 1990, Behavioural Brain Research.

[89]  G. E. Alexander,et al.  Do cortical and basal ganglionic motor areas use “motor programs” to control movement? , 1992 .

[90]  E E Fetz,et al.  Corticomotoneuronal cells contribute to long‐latency stretch reflexes in the rhesus monkey. , 1984, The Journal of physiology.

[91]  S. Bouisset,et al.  Biomechanical study of the programming of anticipatory postural adjustments associated with voluntary movement. , 1987, Journal of biomechanics.

[92]  L. D. Partridge,et al.  Intrinsic feedback factors producing inertial compensation in muscle. , 1967, Biophysical journal.

[93]  D. Guitton,et al.  Gaze control in humans: eye-head coordination during orienting movements to targets within and beyond the oculomotor range. , 1987, Journal of neurophysiology.

[94]  A Prochazka,et al.  The role of sensory information in the guidance of voluntary movement: reflections on a symposium held at the 22nd annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience. , 1994, Somatosensory & motor research.

[95]  A. Winfree.  The geometry of biological time , 1991 .

[96]  S. Swinnen.  Interlimb coordination : neural, dynamical, and cognitive constraints , 1994 .

[97]  P. Fitts,et al.  INFORMATION CAPACITY OF DISCRETE MOTOR RESPONSES. , 1964, Journal of experimental psychology.

[98]  U. Windhorst,et al.  Renshaw cells and recurrent inhibition: Comparison of responses to cyclic inputs , 1995, Neuroscience.

[99]  M. Hirsch,et al.  Differential Equations, Dynamical Systems, and Linear Algebra , 1974 .

[100]  A Struppler,et al.  Discharge pattern of tonically activated motor units during unloading. , 1990, Electromyography and clinical neurophysiology.

[101]  G. Bruyn.  Posture and gait: Development, adaptation and modulation By Bernard Amblard, Alain Berthoz and François Clarac (eds.), Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam-New York-Oxford, 1988, ICS 812, Dfl. 265.00 , 1989, Journal of the Neurological Sciences.

[102]  R. V. Emmerik,et al.  Kinematic adaptations to perturbations as a function of practice in rhythmic drawing movements. , 1992 .

[103]  J. Wickens,et al.  The corticostriatal system on computer simulation: an intermediate mechanism for sequencing of actions. , 1993, Progress in brain research.

[104]  A. G. Feldman.  Once More on the Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis (λ Model) for Motor Control , 1986 .

[105]  C. H. F. Rowell,et al.  Neuronal circuits controlling flight in the locust: how sensory information is processed for motor control , 1986, Trends in Neurosciences.

[106]  M. Latash,et al.  Kinematic and electromyographic characteristics of single-joint movements of individuals with Down syndrome. , 1991, American journal of mental retardation : AJMR.

[107]  J. Houk,et al.  Improvement in linearity and regulation of stiffness that results from actions of stretch reflex. , 1976, Journal of neurophysiology.

[108]  Linda B. Smith,et al.  A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action , 2007, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[109]  D. Hoffman,et al.  Step-tracking movements of the wrist. III. Influence of changes in load on patterns of muscle activity , 1993, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[110]  E. Fetz.  Movement control: Are movement parameters recognizably coded in the activity of single neurons? , 1992 .

[111]  T. Milner,et al.  The effect of accuracy constraints on three-dimensional movement kinematics , 1990, Neuroscience.

[112]  T. Flash,et al.  Arm Trajectory Modifications During Reaching Towards Visual Targets , 1991, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[113]  K E Popov,et al.  Stabilization of body position as the main task of postural regulation. , 1981, Human physiology.

[114]  A. I. Kostyukov,et al.  Movement-dependent after-effects in the firing of the spindle endings from the de-efferented muscles of the cat hindlimb , 1992, Neuroscience.

[115]  Victor S. Gurfinkel,et al.  Postural control in weightlessness: a dual process underlying adaptation to an unusual environment , 1988, Trends in Neurosciences.

[116]  R. Douglas,et al.  Opening the grey box , 1991, Trends in Neurosciences.

[117]  F A Mussa-Ivaldi,et al.  Computations underlying the execution of movement: a biological perspective. , 1991, Science.

[118]  D. Humphrey,et al.  Motor control : concepts and issues , 1991 .

[119]  E. Evarts.  Pyramidal tract activity associated with a conditioned hand movement in the monkey. , 1966, Journal of neurophysiology.

[120]  Paul B. Johnson,et al.  Making arm movements within different parts of space: dynamic aspects in the primate motor cortex , 1990, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[121]  P. Matthews.  The dependence of tension upon extension in the stretch reflex of the soleus muscle of the decerebrate cat , 1959, The Journal of physiology.

[122]  A. Voloshin,et al.  Force wave transmission through the human locomotor system. , 1981, Journal of biomechanical engineering.

[123]  G. Stelmach,et al.  Tutorials in Motor Behavior , 1980 .

[124]  J. Kaas.  Plasticity of sensory and motor maps in adult mammals. , 1991, Annual review of neuroscience.

[125]  J. F. Soechting,et al.  Early stages in a sensorimotor transformation , 1992, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[126]  P. Rack,et al.  Changes in the stretch reflex of the human first dorsal interosseous muscle during different tasks. , 1992, The Journal of physiology.

[127]  Daniel Bullock,et al.  Neural dynamics of planned arm movements: emergent invariants and speed-accuracy properties during trajectory formation , 1988 .

[128]  M. Hulliger,et al.  The absence of position response in spindle afferent units from human finger muscles during accurate position holding. , 1982, The Journal of physiology.

[129]  K. Pribram.  Languages of the Brain: Experimental Paradoxes and Principles in Neuropsychology , 1971 .

[130]  J. Abbs,et al.  Dynamic control of the perioral system during speech: kinematic analyses of autogenic and nonautogenic sensorimotor processes. , 1985, Journal of neurophysiology.

[131]  G. Hammond.  Cerebral control of speech and limb movements , 1990 .

[132]  S. Andreassen,et al.  Regulation of soleus muscle stiffness in premammillary cats: intrinsic and reflex components. , 1981, Journal of neurophysiology.

[133]  R. Melzack.  Phantom limbs, the self and the brain (the D. O. Hebb Memorial Lecture). , 1989 .

[134]  Daniel Kernell,et al.  Synaptic effects on recruitment gain: a mechanism of importance for the input-output relations of motoneurone pools? , 1990, Brain Research.

[135]  R. Stein,et al.  The relation between the surface electromyogram and muscular force. , 1975, The Journal of physiology.

[136]  L. D. Partridge,et al.  Neural Control Drives a Muscle Spring: A Persisting yet Limited Motor Theory , 1983 .

[137]  V. Edgerton,et al.  Rapid ankle extension during paw shakes: selective recruitment of fast ankle extensors. , 1980, Journal of neurophysiology.

[138]  E. Bizzi,et al.  Postural force fields of the human arm and their role in generating multijoint movements , 1993, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[139]  B. C. Motter,et al.  Functional properties of parietal visual neurons: mechanisms of directionality along a single axis , 1987, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[140]  S Grillner,et al.  Supraspinal and segmental control of static and dynamic gamma-motoneurones in the cat. , 1969, Acta physiologica Scandinavica. Supplementum.

[141]  P. Zangger,et al.  ‘Fusimotor set’: new evidence for α-independent control of γ-motoneurones during movement in the awake cat , 1985, Brain Research.

[142]  P. Bach-y-Rita,et al.  Basic Mechanisms of Ocular Motility and Their Clinical Implications , 1976 .

[143]  Z. Hasan,et al.  Are errors in final position destined before the movement begins? , 1992, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[144]  C. Hofsten,et al.  Structuring of early reaching movements: a longitudinal study. , 1991 .

[145]  J. Parlange,et al.  Water uptake, diameter change, and nonlinear diffusion in tree stems. , 1975, Plant physiology.

[146]  A. G. Fel'dman,et al.  Interaction of afferent and efferent signals underlying joint position sense: empirical and theoretical approaches. , 1982, Journal of motor behavior.

[147]  P. Rack,et al.  The tendon of flexor pollicis longus: its effects on the muscular control of force and position at the human thumb. , 1984, The Journal of physiology.

[148]  J. Flanagan,et al.  Grip-load force coupling: a general control strategy for transporting objects. , 1994, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[149]  G. E. Alexander,et al.  For effective sensorimotor processing must there be explicit representations and reconciliation of differing frames of reference? , 1992, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[150]  C. Atkeson,et al.  Kinematic features of unrestrained vertical arm movements , 1985, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[151]  James R. Bloedel,et al.  Coordinate transformation and limb movements: There may be more complexity than meets the eye , 1992, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[152]  P. R. Burgess.  EQUILIBRIUM POINTS AND SENSORY TEMPLATES , 1992 .

[153]  J. Kelso,et al.  The informational character of self-organized coordination dynamics , 1994 .

[154]  C. Pennycuick.  On the running of the gnu (Connochaetes taurinus) and other animals , 1975 .

[155]  John F. Kalaska,et al.  Reaching movements to visual targets: neuronal representations of sensori-motor transformations , 1991 .

[156]  H. Haken,et al.  Synergetics of Cognition , 1990 .

[157]  A. Georgopoulos.  Higher order motor control. , 1991, Annual review of neuroscience.

[158]  G. Bingham,et al.  Hefting for a maximum distance throw: a smart perceptual mechanism. , 1989, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[159]  J. Kalaska,et al.  Motor Cortex and Visuomotor Behavior , 1993, Exercise and sport sciences reviews.

[160]  H Hultborn,et al.  Assessing changes in presynaptic inhibition of I a fibres: a study in man and the cat. , 1987, The Journal of physiology.

[161]  G. Wolstenholme,et al.  The Spinal cord , 1953 .

[162]  D. Meyer,et al.  Models for the speed and accuracy of aimed movements. , 1982, Psychological review.

[163]  J. Hore,et al.  Cerebellar dysmetria at the elbow, wrist, and fingers. , 1991, Journal of neurophysiology.

[164]  G. Gottlieb,et al.  A Computational Model of the Simplest Motor Program. , 1993, Journal of motor behavior.

[165]  S. A. Wallace,et al.  An impulse-timing theory for reciprocal control of muscular activity in rapid, discrete movements. , 1981, Journal of motor behavior.

[166]  C. Gielen,et al.  Modification of muscle activation patterns during fast goal-directed arm movements. , 1984, Journal of motor behavior.

[167]  J. Kelso,et al.  Nonequilibrium phase transitions in coordinated biological motion: Critical slowing down and switching time , 1987 .

[168]  E. Bruce,et al.  High-frequency oscillations in human electromyograms during voluntary contractions. , 1986, Journal of neurophysiology.

[169]  J. Townsend,et al.  Decision field theory: a dynamic-cognitive approach to decision making in an uncertain environment. , 1993, Psychological review.

[170]  J. Houk,et al.  Regulatory actions of human stretch reflex. , 1976, Journal of neurophysiology.

[171]  R. F. Ker,et al.  Mechanical properties of various mammalian tendons , 1986 .

[172]  J. Hale,et al.  Dynamics and Bifurcations , 1991 .

[173]  G. L. Gottlieb,et al.  KINEMATICS IS ONLY A (GOOD) START , 1992 .

[174]  T. Nichols,et al.  STIFFNESS REGULATION REVISITED , 1992 .

[175]  J. Hamill,et al.  The force-driven harmonic oscillator as a model for human locomotion , 1990 .

[176]  D. McCrea.  Spinal cord circuitry and motor reflexes. , 1986, Exercise and sport sciences reviews.

[177]  M. Bonnard,et al.  Jeannerod's representing brain: Image or illusion? , 1994, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[178]  D. Ostry,et al.  Control of jaw orientation and position in mastication and speech. , 1994, Journal of neurophysiology.

[179]  P. Glansdorff,et al.  Thermodynamic theory of structure, stability and fluctuations , 1971 .

[180]  J. Kalaska,et al.  Comparison of cerebellar and motor cortex activity during reaching: directional tuning and response variability. , 1993, Journal of neurophysiology.

[181]  H Johansson,et al.  Fusimotor reflexes in triceps surae muscle elicited by stretch of muscles in the contralateral hind limb of the cat. , 1986, The Journal of physiology.

[182]  Aron M. Gutman,et al.  Bistability of Dendrites , 1991, Int. J. Neural Syst..

[183]  A. Pellionisz,et al.  Space-time representation in the brain. The cerebellum as a predictive space-time metric tensor , 1982, Neuroscience.

[184]  Robert E. Shaw,et al.  Ecological mechanics: A physical geometry for intentional constraints , 1988 .

[185]  M J Griffin,et al.  Effects of vertical vibration on passenger activities: writing and drinking. , 1991, Ergonomics.

[186]  W. Becker,et al.  An analysis of the saccadic system by means of double step stimuli , 1979, Vision Research.

[187]  C. D. De Luca,et al.  Voluntary control of motor units in human antagonist muscles: coactivation and reciprocal activation. , 1987, Journal of neurophysiology.

[188]  M. Hallett,et al.  Postural adjustments associated with rapid voluntary arm movements. II. Biomechanical analysis. , 1988, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[189]  E. Schomburg.  Spinal sensorimotor systems and their supraspinal control , 1990, Neuroscience Research.

[190]  H. Dr,et al.  Separate cortical systems for control of joint movement and joint stiffness: reciprocal activation and coactivation of antagonist muscles. , 1983 .

[191]  K. Pearson,et al.  Reversal of the influence of group Ib afferents from plantaris on activity in medial gastrocnemius muscle during locomotor activity. , 1993, Journal of neurophysiology.

[192]  D. Kernell,et al.  Synaptic stimulation superimposed on motoneurones firing in the ‘secondary range’ to injected current , 1966, The Journal of physiology.

[193]  RP Dum,et al.  The origin of corticospinal projections from the premotor areas in the frontal lobe , 1991, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[194]  Richard B. Stein,et al.  What muscle variable(s) does the nervous system control in limb movements? , 1982, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[195]  L. D. Partridge,et al.  Signal-handling characteristics of load-moving skeletal muscle. , 1966, The American journal of physiology.

[196]  M. A. Arbib,et al.  A Model of the Effects of Speed, Accuracy, and Perturbation on Visually Guided Reaching , 1992 .

[197]  Francesco Lacquaniti,et al.  Automatic control of limb movement and posture , 1992, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[198]  C Ghez,et al.  Roles of proprioceptive input in the programming of arm trajectories. , 1990, Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology.

[199]  R. Granit.  The basis of motor control , 1970 .

[200]  J. Flanagan,et al.  Coupling of grip force and load force during arm movements with grasped objects , 1993, Neuroscience Letters.

[201]  F. A. Mussa-lvaldi,et al.  Convergent force fields organized in the frog's spinal cord , 1993, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[202]  O. I. Fukson,et al.  Adaptability of innate motor patterns and motor control mechanisms , 1986, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[203]  D. Robinson,et al.  Integrating with neurons. , 1989, Annual review of neuroscience.

[204]  Neville Hogan,et al.  Integrable Solutions of Kinematic Redundancy via Impedance Control , 1991, Int. J. Robotics Res..

[205]  M. Jeannerod,et al.  Constraints on human arm movement trajectories. , 1987, Canadian journal of psychology.

[206]  Yves Guiard,et al.  Left-hand advantage in right-handers for spatial constant error: Preliminary evidence in a unimanual ballistic aimed movement , 1983, Neuropsychologia.

[207]  A. Vallbo,et al.  Human muscle spindle discharge during isometric voluntary contractions. Amplitude relations between spindle frequency and torque. , 1974, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[208]  C. Capaday,et al.  Amplitude modulation of the soleus H-reflex in the human during walking and standing , 1986, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[209]  Mark L. Latash,et al.  Are we able to preserve a motor command in the changing environment , 1992 .

[210]  G. L. Gottlieb,et al.  Virtual trajectories of single-joint movements performed under two basic strategies , 1992, Neuroscience.

[211]  J. F. Soechting,et al.  An algorithm for the generation of curvilinear wrist motion in an arbitrary plane in three-dimensional space , 1986, Neuroscience.

[212]  A. Pellionisz,et al.  Tensor network theory of the metaorganization of functional geometries in the central nervous system , 1985, Neuroscience.

[213]  R. Whalen,et al.  Musculoskeletal adaptation to mechanical forces on Earth and in space. , 1993, The Physiologist.

[214]  E. Bizzi,et al.  Characteristics of motor programs underlying arm movements in monkeys. , 1979, Journal of neurophysiology.

[215]  D. Mirkin.  Space Physiology and Medicine , 1990 .

[216]  E. A. Jackson,et al.  Perspectives of nonlinear dynamics , 1990 .

[217]  N. A. Borghese,et al.  Transient reversal of the stretch reflex in human arm muscles. , 1991, Journal of neurophysiology.

[218]  G. Somjen,et al.  Excitability and inhibitability of motoneurons of different sizes. , 1965, Journal of neurophysiology.

[219]  C. Gielen,et al.  Intrinsic and afferent components in apparent muscle stiffness in man , 1983, Neuroscience.

[220]  John Schlag,et al.  Vestibular-oculomotor interaction in cat eye-head movements , 1983, Brain Research.

[221]  C. Sherrington.  Integrative Action of the Nervous System , 1907 .

[222]  M. Goldberger,et al.  Restitution of function and collateral sprouting in the cat spinal cord: The deafferented animal , 1974, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[223]  L. D. Partridge,et al.  Interrelationships studied in a semibiological "reflex". , 1972, The American journal of physiology.

[224]  S. Rossignol,et al.  On the initiation of the swing phase of locomotion in chronic spinal cats , 1978, Brain Research.

[225]  E. Bizzi,et al.  Effect of load disturbances during centrally initiated movements. , 1978, Journal of neurophysiology.

[226]  Simon F. Giszter.  Combination of primitive force-generating motor elements during reflex behaviors , 1994, Proceedings of 16th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[227]  J. Dean,et al.  Intersegmental and local interneurons in the metathorax of the stick insect Carausius morosus that monitor middle leg position. , 1994, Journal of neurophysiology.

[228]  G L Gottlieb,et al.  Development of the stretch reflex in the newborn: reciprocal excitation and reflex irradiation. , 1993, Child development.

[229]  E. Bizzi,et al.  Mechanisms underlying achievement of final head position. , 1976, Journal of neurophysiology.

[230]  Elliot Saltzman,et al.  Skilled actions: a task-dynamic approach. , 1987, Psychological review.

[231]  F. Lacquaniti.  Central representations of human limb movement as revealed by studies of drawing and handwriting , 1989, Trends in Neurosciences.

[232]  J H Abbs,et al.  Lip and jaw motor control during speech: responses to resistive loading of the jaw. , 1975, Journal of speech and hearing research.

[233]  R. Abraham,et al.  Dynamics--the geometry of behavior , 1983 .

[234]  A. Prochazka.  Sensorimotor gain control: A basic strategy of motor systems? , 1989, Progress in Neurobiology.

[235]  J. Flanagan,et al.  Kinematics and control of frog hindlimb movements. , 1991, Journal of neurophysiology.

[236]  P. Fitts.  The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. , 1954, Journal of experimental psychology.

[237]  T. Brown.  On the nature of the fundamental activity of the nervous centres; together with an analysis of the conditioning of rhythmic activity in progression, and a theory of the evolution of function in the nervous system , 1914, The Journal of physiology.

[238]  I Rock,et al.  The Optomotor Response and Induced Motion of the Self , 1986, Perception.

[239]  G. Somjen,et al.  Spreading depression of Leão: 50 years since a seminal discovery. , 1994, Journal of neurophysiology.

[240]  P. Crago,et al.  Equilibrium-point hypothesis, minimum effort control strategy and the triphasic muscle activation pattern , 1992 .

[241]  Simon C. Gandevia,et al.  Kinesthesia and unique solutions for control of multijoint movements , 1992, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[242]  E. Jankowska.  Interneuronal relay in spinal pathways from proprioceptors , 1992, Progress in Neurobiology.

[243]  R. F. Ker,et al.  Why are mammalian tendons so thick , 1988 .

[244]  J. Kelso,et al.  Self-organization of coordinative movement patterns ☆ , 1988 .

[245]  P. Strick,et al.  Influence of ‘strategy’ on muscle activity during ballistic movements , 1981, Brain Research.

[246]  J A Kelso,et al.  Analysis of "invariant characteristics" in the motor control of down's syndrome and normal subjects. , 1982, Journal of motor behavior.

[247]  J A Kelso,et al.  Dynamic pattern generation in behavioral and neural systems. , 1988, Science.

[248]  D. Newman,et al.  Human locomotion and workload for simulated lunar and Martian environments. , 1993, Acta astronautica.

[249]  J. Paillard.  Brain and space , 1991 .

[250]  M. Latash,et al.  An equilibrium-point model for fast, single-joint movement: II. Similarity of single-joint isometric and isotonic descending commands. , 1991, Journal of motor behavior.

[251]  S. Grillner,et al.  Peripheral control of the cat's step cycle. I. Phase dependent effects of ramp-movements of the hip during "fictive locomotion". , 1981, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[252]  M. Taussig.  The Nervous System , 1991 .

[253]  K. Pearson,et al.  Inhibition of flexor burst generation by loading ankle extensor muscles in walking cats , 1980, Brain Research.

[254]  P. Morasso,et al.  Self-Organizing Body Schema for Motor Planning , 1995 .

[255]  C. C. A. M. Gielen,et al.  The constrained control of force and position by multilink manipulators , 1992, IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern..

[256]  T. Flash,et al.  The coordination of arm movements: an experimentally confirmed mathematical model , 1985, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[257]  D. McCrea.  Can sense be made of spinal interneuron circuits , 1992 .

[258]  R. A. Davidoff.  Handbook of the spinal cord , 1983 .

[259]  Lloyd D. Partridge,et al.  How was movement controlled before Newton? , 1982, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[260]  Peter D. Neilson,et al.  Coordinate transformations or dynamic models? , 1992, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[261]  G Schöner,et al.  A synergetic theory of quadrupedal gaits and gait transitions. , 1990, Journal of theoretical biology.

[262]  G. Schöner.  Recent Developments and Problems in Human Movement Science and Their Conceptual Implications , 1995 .

[263]  R. Lee,et al.  Modification of Motor Output to Compensate for Unanticipated Load Conditions During Rapid Voluntary Movements , 1986, Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences / Journal Canadien des Sciences Neurologiques.

[264]  O. Jacobs,et al.  Introduction to Control Theory , 1976, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics.

[265]  Loukia D. Loukopoulos,et al.  Knowledge Model for Selecting and Producing Reaching Movements. , 1993, Journal of motor behavior.

[266]  J. Kalaska,et al.  Cerebral cortical mechanisms of reaching movements. , 1992, Science.

[267]  A. G. Feldman.  The coactivation command for antagonist muscles involving Ib interneurons in mammalian motor control systems: an electrophysiologically testable model , 1993, Neuroscience Letters.

[268]  B. C. Motter,et al.  Functional properties of parietal visual neurons: radial organization of directionalities within the visual field , 1987, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[269]  R. Porter,et al.  Corticospinal Function and Voluntary Movement , 1993 .

[270]  N. Hogan.  An organizing principle for a class of voluntary movements , 1984, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[271]  Donald M. Wilson.  The Central Nervous Control of Flight in a Locust , 1961 .

[272]  F. Zajac,et al.  Determining Muscle's Force and Action in Multi‐Articular Movement , 1989, Exercise and sport sciences reviews.

[273]  J. Bloedel.  Functional heterogeneity with structural homogeneity: How does the cerebellum operate? , 1992 .

[274]  L. Burström,et al.  Absorption of vibration energy in the human hand and arm. , 1994, Ergonomics.

[275]  E. Evarts.  Activity of pyramidal tract neurons during postural fixation. , 1969, Journal of neurophysiology.

[276]  N. A. Bernshteĭn.  The co-ordination and regulation of movements , 1967 .

[277]  E. Bizzi,et al.  Posture control and trajectory formation during arm movement , 1984, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[278]  D. Stuart,et al.  Propriospinal control of last order interneurones of spinal reflex pathways in the cat. , 1973, Brain research.

[279]  J. Lackner,et al.  Rapid adaptation to Coriolis force perturbations of arm trajectory. , 1994, Journal of neurophysiology.

[280]  R. Williamson,et al.  Sensory and motor interactions during movement in the spinal dogfish , 1986, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences.

[281]  Roberto Caminiti,et al.  Control of arm movement in space : neurophysiological and computational approaches , 1992 .

[282]  S. Rossignol,et al.  A kinematic and electromyographic study of cutaneous reflexes evoked from the forelimb of unrestrained walking cats. , 1987, Journal of neurophysiology.

[283]  T. Brown.  The intrinsic factors in the act of progression in the mammal , 1911 .

[284]  C Tafforin,et al.  Relationships between orientation, movement and posture in weightlessness: preliminary ethological observations. , 1990, Acta astronautica.

[285]  D J Kriellaars,et al.  Mechanical entrainment of fictive locomotion in the decerebrate cat. , 1994, Journal of neurophysiology.

[286]  E. Thelen,et al.  The organization of spontaneous leg movements in newborn infants. , 1983, Journal of motor behavior.

[287]  M Kuperstein,et al.  Neural model of adaptive hand-eye coordination for single postures. , 1988, Science.

[288]  A. P. Georgopoulos,et al.  Neuronal population coding of movement direction. , 1986, Science.

[289]  E. Fetz,et al.  Postspike facilitation of forelimb muscle activity by primate corticomotoneuronal cells. , 1980, Journal of neurophysiology.

[290]  Gerrit Jan VAN INGEN SCHENAU,et al.  From rotation to translation: Constraints on multi-joint movements and the unique action of bi-articular muscles , 1989 .

[291]  E. Thelen,et al.  Understanding movement control in infants through the analysis of limb intersegmental dynamics. , 1990, Journal of motor behavior.

[292]  M. L. Tsetlin,et al.  Models of the Structural-Functional Organization of Certain Biological Systems , 1971 .

[293]  Stevan Harnad,et al.  Movement control: Contents , 1994 .

[294]  Aron Gutman.  Gelfand-Tsetlin Principle of Minimal Afferentation and Bistability of Dendrites , 1994, Int. J. Neural Syst..

[295]  U. Windhorst,et al.  Shaping static elbow torque-angle relationships by spinal cord circuits: A theoretical study , 1994, Neuroscience.

[296]  Richard S. Johnston,et al.  Biomedical results from Skylab , 1977 .

[297]  Kenneth R. Boff,et al.  Engineering data compendium : human perception and performance , 1988 .

[298]  A. G. Feldman,et al.  The influence of different descending systems on the tonic stretch reflex in the cat. , 1972, Experimental neurology.

[299]  T. Nichols.  The organization of heterogenic reflexes among muscles crossing the ankle joint in the decerebrate cat. , 1989, The Journal of physiology.

[300]  C N Christakos,et al.  Fast rhythms in phrenic motoneuron and nerve discharges. , 1991, Journal of neurophysiology.

[301]  J. Lackner,et al.  Gravitoinertial force level affects the appreciation of limb position during muscle vibration , 1992, Brain Research.

[302]  E. Bizzi,et al.  Effects of dorsal root cut on the forces evoked by spinal microstimulation in the spinalized frog. , 1993, Somatosensory & motor research.

[303]  G. Loeb.  Motoneurone task groups: coping with kinematic heterogeneity. , 1985, The Journal of experimental biology.