Is there a relation between locus of control orientation and depression?

Meta-analytic techniques were used to review studies of the relation between locus of control and depression. Contrary to what some authors have claimed, we found that locus of control orientation and degree of depression were significantly related, that the relation was moderately strong, and that it was consistent across studies. Greater externality was associated with greater depression. Studies that included separate subscales for locus of control for positive and negative outcomes produced similar results. Seven potential mediators of the locus of control-depression relation were investigated, with only two producing significant results. Effect sizes varied as a function of the particular locus of control and depression scales used in studies. The implications of the findings are discussed, with special attention given to the "depressive paradox" hypothesis (Abramson & Sackeim, 1977) and to Lament's (1972a, 1972b) methodological critique of the locus of control-depression relation.

[1]  P. Sweeney,et al.  Attributional style in depression: a meta-analytic review. , 1986, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[2]  M. Newcomb,et al.  Nuclear attitudes and reactions: associations with depression, drug use, and quality of life. , 1986, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[3]  M. M. Lefkowitz,et al.  Depression in children: prevalence and correlates. , 1985, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[4]  M. Rosenbaum,et al.  Personal efficacy, external locus of control, and perceived contingency of parental reinforcement among depressed, paranoid, and normal subjects. , 1985, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[5]  M. Reznikoff,et al.  Personality factors and change with multiple sclerosis. , 1985, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[6]  K. Hodges,et al.  Cognitive problem-solving and life event correlates of depressive symptoms in children , 1985, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[7]  M. Pagel,et al.  Loss of control, self-blame, and depression: an investigation of spouse caregivers of Alzheimer's disease patients. , 1985, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[8]  R. Schulz,et al.  Long-term adjustment to physical disability: the role of social support, perceived control, and self-blame. , 1985, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[9]  D. Clark,et al.  Masculinity, femininity, type A behavior, and psychosocial adjustment in medical students. , 1985, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[10]  R. Ganellen,et al.  Stress, externality, and depression. , 1984, Journal of personality.

[11]  T. F. Cash.  The Irrational Beliefs Test: its relationship with cognitive-behavioral traits and depression. , 1984, Journal of clinical psychology.

[12]  M. E. Jackson,et al.  Perceived lack of control over life events: Antecedents and consequences in a discharged patient sample , 1984 .

[13]  B. Linn,et al.  Self-evaluation of life function (self) scale: a short, comprehensive self-report of health for elderly adults. , 1984, Journal of gerontology.

[14]  Harris Cooper,et al.  The Integrative Research Review: A Systematic Approach , 1984 .

[15]  C Peterson,et al.  Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: theory and evidence. , 1984, Psychological review.

[16]  J. Paolillo,et al.  Depression: Influence of Hopelessness, Locus of Control, Hostility and Length of Treatment , 1984, Psychological reports.

[17]  H. Light,et al.  Depression and Mastery in Women: Differences According to Personal Characteristics , 1984, Psychological reports.

[18]  J. Burger,et al.  Desire for control, locus of control, and proneness to depression. , 1984, Journal of personality.

[19]  L. Cohen,et al.  Locus of control and control perceptions and the relationship between life stress and psychological disorder , 1983, American journal of community psychology.

[20]  K. Ludenia,et al.  Dental outpatients: health locus of control correlates. , 1983, Journal of Clinical Psychology.

[21]  J. Coyne,et al.  The role of cognition in depression: a critical appraisal. , 1983, Psychological bulletin.

[22]  T. Conway.  Beliefs about Control in Different Life Domains. , 1983 .

[23]  S. Baum,et al.  Depression and old age identification. , 1983, Journal of clinical psychology.

[24]  L. W. Warren,et al.  Psychosocial correlates of depressive symptomatology in adult women. , 1983, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[25]  M. Hojat.  Comparison of transitory and chronic loners on selected personality variables. , 1983, British journal of psychology.

[26]  S. Bacon,et al.  Personality variables in coping with the stress of a spouse's chronic illness. , 1983, Journal of clinical psychology.

[27]  K. Ludenia,et al.  Personality Correlates of Health Locus of Control with Medical Inpatients , 1983, Psychological reports.

[28]  C. Pine.  Obese and non-obese American Indian and Caucasian performance on the mini-mult MMPI and I-E scale. , 1983, Journal of clinical psychology.

[29]  Harris Cooper,et al.  Locus of control and academic achievement: A literature review. , 1983 .

[30]  M. M. Lefkowitz,et al.  Childhood depression: a 6-month follow-up study. , 1982, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[31]  Gregg B. Jackson,et al.  Meta-Analysis: Cumulating Research Findings Across Studies , 1982 .

[32]  D. Baucom,et al.  Locus of control and depression: that confounded relationship. , 1982, Journal of personality assessment.

[33]  A. Greenwald,et al.  Individual Differences in the Processing of Information about Oneself. , 1982 .

[34]  E. Costello.  Locus of control and depression in students and psychiatric outpatients. , 1982, Journal of clinical psychology.

[35]  B Lakey,et al.  Locus of control as a stress moderator: The role of control perceptions and social support , 1982, American journal of community psychology.

[36]  J. Burger.  Motivational biases in the attribution of responsibility for an accident: A meta-analysis of the defensive-attribution hypothesis. , 1981 .

[37]  H. Cooper.  On the significance of effects and the effects of significance. , 1981 .

[38]  B. Husaini,et al.  Social Class and Depressive Symptomatology: The Role of Life Change Events and Locus of Control , 1981, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[39]  E. Cole,et al.  The CIP battery: identification of depression in a juvenile delinquent population. , 1981, Journal of clinical psychology.

[40]  H. Lefcourt,et al.  Research With the Locus of Control Construct , 1981 .

[41]  P. Lewinsohn,et al.  Depression-related cognitions: antecedent or consequence? , 1981, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[42]  V. Molinari,et al.  Locus of control and its relationship to anxiety and depression. , 1981, Journal of personality assessment.

[43]  T. Weckowicz,et al.  Perception of reinforcement and psychomotor retardation in depressed patients , 1981 .

[44]  H. Cooper,et al.  Gender Differences in the Academic Locus of Control Beliefs of Young Children , 1981 .

[45]  C. Hammen,et al.  Cognitive correlates of life stress and depression in college students. , 1981, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[46]  R. G. Evans.  The relationships of two measures of perceived control to depression. , 1981, Journal of personality assessment.

[47]  M. M. Lefkowitz,et al.  Childhood Depression, Family Income, and Locus of Control , 1980, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[48]  R. Archer.  Generalized expectancies of control, trait anxiety, and psychopathology among psychiatric inpatients. , 1980, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[49]  M. M. Lefkowitz,et al.  Childhood depression, locus of control, and school achievement. , 1980, Journal of educational psychology.

[50]  W. M. Phillips,et al.  Purpose in life, depression, and locus of control. , 1980, Journal of clinical psychology.

[51]  W. Froming,et al.  Mood and personality: A search for the causal relationship1 , 1980 .

[52]  C. Peterson.  Uncontrollability and self-blame in depression: investigation of the paradox in a college population. , 1979, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[53]  R. Archer,et al.  Locus of Control and Depression among Psychiatric Inpatients , 1979, Psychological reports.

[54]  D. Buonocore.  Perceptions of control and responsibility: patterns in depression / , 1979 .

[55]  H. Winefield.  Helplessness and control of childhood events in depressed and normal women , 1979 .

[56]  M. Bragg.  A comparative study of loneliness and depression. , 1979 .

[57]  G. Gurin,et al.  Americans View Their Mental Health , 1979 .

[58]  R. Rosenthal.  The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results , 1979 .

[59]  R. G. Evans,et al.  I-E Scale responses as a function of subject mood level. , 1979, Journal of personality assessment.

[60]  Rolf A. Peterson,et al.  Are Locus of Control and Depression Related? , 1978, Psychological reports.

[61]  R. G. Evans,et al.  Reductions in experienced control and depression in psychiatric inpatients: a test of the learned helplessness model. , 1978, Journal of Clinical Psychology.

[62]  D. Berndt.  Construct Validation of the Personal and Sociopolitical Dimensions of Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale , 1978 .

[63]  D M Donovan,et al.  The Drinking-Related Locus of Control Scale. Reliability, factor structure and validity. , 1978, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[64]  D. C. Zuroff.  Selective memory for self-relevant information in depressed, formerly depressed, and never depressed college students. , 1978 .

[65]  P. G. Wright.  Depression in normal subjects: Predisposing cognitive factors and precipitating situations. , 1978 .

[66]  M. Seligman,et al.  Learned helplessness in humans: critique and reformulation. , 1978, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[67]  R. Rizley,et al.  Depression and distortion in the attribution of causality. , 1978, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[68]  O. Parsons,et al.  Locus of control in alcoholics and treatment outcome. , 1977, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[69]  Bradford S. Wild,et al.  Locus of Control and Depression among Noninstitutionalized Elderly Persons , 1977, Psychological reports.

[70]  O. Parsons,et al.  Relationship of depression, sociopathy, and locus of control to treatment outcome in alcoholics. , 1977, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[71]  Barbara R. Moyal.  Locus of control, self-esteem, stimulus appraisal, and depressive symptoms in children. , 1977 .

[72]  H. Sackeim,et al.  A paradox in depression: uncontrollability and self-blame. , 1977, Psychological bulletin.

[73]  F. Terrell,et al.  Motivational and associative aspects of mild depression in skill and chance tasks. , 1977, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[74]  D. Raz,et al.  Denial, locus of control and depression among physically disabled and nondisabled men. , 1977, Journal of clinical psychology.

[75]  E. Becker,et al.  Feelings of hostility and personal control as related to depression. , 1977, Journal of clinical psychology.

[76]  P. H. Blaney.  Contemporary theories of depression: critique and comparison. , 1977, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[77]  Joseph Wolpe,et al.  Cognitive therapy and emotional disorders: by Aaron T. Beck International Universities Press. $15.00 , 1977 .

[78]  E. Chaney,et al.  Perceived locus of control as a function of level of depression among alcoholics and nonalcoholics. , 1977, Journal of Clinical Psychology.

[79]  W. Haley,et al.  Locus of Control and Depression. , 1977 .

[80]  G. Brannigan,et al.  Internal-external expectancy, maladjustment and psychotherapeutic intervention. , 1977, Journal of personality assessment.

[81]  E. Chaney,et al.  Relationship between psychopathology, experienced control and perceived locus of control: in search of alcoholic subtypes. , 1976, Journal of clinical psychology.

[82]  L. Breen,et al.  Hopelessness, internal-external locus of control, and depression. , 1976, Journal of clinical psychology.

[83]  A E Wener,et al.  Depressive affect: a test of behavioral hypotheses. , 1975, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[84]  P. Emmelkamp,et al.  Relationship of Locus of Control to Phobic Anxiety and Depression , 1975, Psychological reports.

[85]  L. J. Severance,et al.  Relationships Between the CPI, MMPI, and locus of control in a nonacademic environment. , 1975, Journal of personality assessment.

[86]  M. Gargan,et al.  Denial, anxiety, locus of control, and the discrepancy between aspirations and achievements as components of depression. , 1975, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[87]  L. Calhoun,et al.  Locus of control, self-reported depression, and perceived causes of depression. , 1974, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[88]  D. Donovan,et al.  Relationships between locus of control and MMPI scales among alcoholics: a replication and extension. , 1974, Journal of clinical psychology.

[89]  D G Kilpatrick,et al.  Personality, stress of the medical education process, and changes in affective mood state. , 1974, Psychological reports.

[90]  H. Levenson,et al.  Multidimensional locus of control in psychiatric patients. , 1973, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[91]  M. Seligman,et al.  Depression and the perception of reinforcement. , 1973, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[92]  J. Lamont.  Depression, locus of control and mood response set. , 1972, Journal of clinical psychology.

[93]  J. Lamont.  Item mood-level as a determinant of I-E test response. , 1972, Journal of clinical psychology.

[94]  R. G. Warehime,et al.  Locus of control and immediate affect states. , 1971, Journal of clinical psychology.

[95]  A. Goss,et al.  Relation between a dimension of internal-external control and the MMPI with an alcoholic population. , 1970, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[96]  S. Abramowitz.  Locus of Control and Self-Reported Depression among College Students , 1969, Psychological reports.

[97]  Samuel R. Friedman,et al.  Depression: Clinical, Experimental, and Theoretical Aspects , 1968 .

[98]  D. Clark,et al.  Personality indicators of psychosocial adjustment in first-year medical students. , 1985, Social science & medicine.

[99]  E. E. Ware,et al.  Locus of control, causal attributions and affects in achievement-related contexts , 1984 .

[100]  R. Rosenthal.  Meta-analytic procedures for social research , 1984 .

[101]  J H Crowther,et al.  Personality and eating habit variables as predictors of severity of binge eating and weight. , 1983, Addictive behaviors.

[102]  J. Fleming,et al.  Belief in a difficult world: The psychological adjustment component of internal-external locus of control , 1983 .

[103]  T. Wise,et al.  Depression, illness beliefs and severity of illness. , 1982, Journal of psychosomatic research.

[104]  J. Hood,et al.  Locus of control as a measure of ineffectiveness in anorexia nervosa. , 1982, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[105]  G. Devins,et al.  Helplessness and depression in end-stage renal disease. , 1981, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[106]  G. Parker.  Vulnerability factors to normal depression. , 1980, Journal of psychosomatic research.

[107]  I. Miller,et al.  Learned helplessness in humans: A review and attribution-theory model. , 1979 .

[108]  R. Janoff-Bulman.  Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: inquiries into depression and rape. , 1979, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[109]  Daniel Bar-Tal,et al.  New approaches to social problems , 1979 .

[110]  M. W. Pryer,et al.  Correlates of locus of control among male alcoholics. , 1977, Journal of clinical psychology.

[111]  E. Chaney,et al.  Perceived locus of control experienced control and depression: a trait description of the learned helplessness model of depression. , 1977, Journal of clinical psychology.

[112]  B. Jaffe.  Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders , 1977 .

[113]  J. Bachman.  The Impact of Family Background and Intelligence on Tenth-Grade Boys. Youth in Transition. Volume II. , 1970 .

[114]  J. Rotter.  Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. , 1966, Psychological monographs.