Vroom's expectancy models and work-related criteria: A meta-analysis

Wendelien Van Eerde University of Amsterdam Henk Thierry University of Tilburg This meta-analysis integrates the correlations of 77 studies on V. H. Vroom's (1964) original expectancy models and work-related criteria. Correlations referring to predic- tions with the models and the single components--valence, instrumentality, and expec- tancy-were included in relation to 5 types of criterion variables: performance, effort, intention, preference, and choice. Within-subjects correlations and between-subjects cor- relations were included separately. Overall, the average correlations were somewhat lower than reported in previous narrative reviews. In certain categories, moderators pertaining to the measurement of the concepts were analyzed with a hierarchical linear model, but these moderators did not explain heterogeneity. The results show a differentiated over- view: the use of the correlational material for the validity of expectancy theory is discussed. Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) has held a major position in the study of work motivation. Vroom's (1964) Valence - Instrumentality - Expectancy Model (VIE model), in particular, has been the subject of numerous empirical studies. It has served as a rich source for theo- retical innovations in domains such as organizational be- havior (Naylor, Pritchard, & Ilgen, 1980), leadership (House, 1971), and compensation (Lawler, 1971). Re- views on expectancy theory (Mitchell, 1974, 1982; Pritchard & Campbell, 1976; Schwab, Olian-Gottlieb, & Heneman, 1979; Wanous, Keon, & Latack, 1983) ad- dressed several conceptual and empirical problems and gave important suggestions for future research. Recent publications show a revived interest in ex- pectancy theory as it relates to training motivation (Mathieu, Tannenbaum, & Salas, 1992), turnover (Summers & Hendrix, 1991 ), productivity loss in group performance (Shepperd, 1993), self-set goals (Tubbs, Boehne, & Dahl, 1993), goal commitment (Klein & Wright, 1994; Tubbs, 1993), and goal level (Mento, Wendelien Van Eerde, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Henk Thierry, Department of Human Resource Sciences, University of Til- burg, Tilburg, The Netherlands. We thank Joop Hox, Nathalie Allen, Bob Pritchard, Sabine Sonnentag, and Carsten de Dreu. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Wendelien Van Eerde, Department of Psychology, Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Roetersstraat 15, l018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Electronic mail may be sent via Internet to ao__eerde@ macmail.psy.uva.nl. Locke, & Klein, 1992 ). Also, some argue that expectancy theory should be combined with other motivation theo- ries (e.g., Kanfer, 1987; Kernan & Lord, 1990; Klein, 1989; Landy &Becker, 1990). Therefore, it is important to establish the validity of expectancy theory. Does 30 years of research support its main tenets? Is the theory still "promising," though not firmly supported empiri- cally, such as earlier reviews seem to conclude? Is it useful to combine expectancy theory with other approaches, and, if so, how should this be done? Many different interpretations, operationalizations, application purposes, and methods of statistical analysis have been used. To make a comparison and combination of the results possible, we referred to Vroom's basic models and their components. The objective of this arti- cle is to analyze the literature on expectancy theory sys- tematically and to integrate the empirical results meta- analytically. We did so in order to establish the relation between expectancy theory and work-related criterion variables. Landy and Becker (1990) suggested that the key to im- proving the predictions of the expectancy model might lie in variables such as the number of outcomes, valence of outcomes, and the particular dependent variable cho- sen for study. Schwab et al. (1979) examined the rela- tionship between the VIE model and two criterion vari- ables, effort and performance. They included several moderators of this relationship in 32 between-subject studies in a statistical analysis. The current article pro- vides a partial update of their findings. In addition, stud- ies with components of the VIE model, that is, valence, instrumentality, expectancy, and

[1]  V. Vroom.  Work and motivation , 1964 .

[2]  Edward E. Lawler,et al.  A correlational-causal analysis of the relationship between expectancy attitudes and job performance. , 1968 .

[3]  Lyman W. Porter,et al.  Expectancy theory predictions of work effectiveness. , 1968 .

[4]  G. Graen,et al.  Instrumentality theory of work motivation: some experimental results and suggested modifications. , 1969, The Journal of applied psychology.

[5]  J. Sheard.  Intrasubject prediction of preferences for organization types. , 1970 .

[6]  P. Goodman,et al.  Comparison of motivational antecedents of the work performance of scientists and engineers. , 1970 .

[7]  J. Wofford.  The motivational bases of job satisfaction and job performance. , 1971 .

[8]  R. J. House,et al.  A Path-Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness , 1971 .

[9]  L. K. Waters,et al.  Self-Esteem as a Moderator of the Relationship between Task-Success and Task-Liking , 1972, Psychological reports.

[10]  Terence R. Mitchell,et al.  Expectancy theory predictions of the satisfaction, effort, performance, and retention of naval aviation officers. , 1972 .

[11]  Richard D. Arvey,et al.  A test of expectancy theory in a field setting using female clerical employees , 1973 .

[12]  J. Gavin,et al.  Self-esteem as moderator of the relationship between expectancies and job performance. , 1973 .

[13]  Terence R. Mitchell,et al.  Instrumentality Theory Predictions of Students' Attitudes Towards Business and Their Choice of Business as an Occupation , 1973 .

[14]  T. Mitchell,et al.  Expectancy theory predictions of academic effort and performance. , 1973 .

[15]  E. Lawler,et al.  Expectancy theory and job behavior , 1973 .

[16]  R. Pritchard,et al.  Experimental test of the valence-instrumentality relationship in job performance. , 1973 .

[17]  Robert D. Pritchard,et al.  The influence of valence, instrumentality, and expectancy on effort and performance. , 1973 .

[18]  William H. Mobley,et al.  Construct validation of an instrumentality-expectancy-task-goal model of work motivation: Some theoretical boundary conditions. , 1973 .

[19]  M. D. Dunnette,et al.  Effects of the manipulation of a performance-reward contingency on behavior in a simulated work setting. , 1973 .

[20]  L. Dyer,et al.  The motivational impact of a compensation system on employee performance , 1973 .

[21]  T. Mitchell,et al.  Instrumentality Theory Predictions of Academic Behavior , 1973 .

[22]  R. Oliver.  Expectancy Theory Predictions of Salesmen's Performance , 1974 .

[23]  J. Feldman.  Note on the utility of certainty weights in expectancy theory. , 1974 .

[24]  T. Mitchell,et al.  Leader behavior: An expectancy theory approach , 1974 .

[25]  Terence R. Mitchell,et al.  Expectancy models of job satisfaction, occupational preference and effort: A theoretical, methodological, and empirical appraisal. , 1974 .

[26]  J. Turney.  Activity outcome expectancies and intrinsic activity values as predictors of several motivation indexes for technical-professionals☆ , 1974 .

[27]  R. Arvey,et al.  Testing expectancy theory predictions using behaviorally based measures of motivational effort for engineers , 1974 .

[28]  L. Dyer,et al.  A note on the measurement of valence perceptions in expectancy theory research. , 1975 .

[29]  E. Lawler,et al.  Job choice and post decision dissonance , 1975 .

[30]  L. Reinharth,et al.  Expectancy Theory as a Predictor of Work Motivation, Effort Expenditure, and Job Performance , 1975 .

[31]  A cross-cultural study of the validity of the expectancy theory of work motivation. , 1975 .

[32]  J. E. Sheridan,et al.  Motivational determinants of job performance. , 1975 .

[33]  N. Schmitt.  A Causal-Correlational Analysis of Expectancy Theory Hypotheses , 1975 .

[34]  J. Ivancevich.  Expectancy Theory Predictions and Behaviorally Anchored Scales of Motivation: An Empirical Test of Engineers. , 1976 .

[35]  Kathryn M. Bartol,et al.  Expectancy Theory as a Predictor of Female Occupational Choice and Attitude Toward Business , 1976 .

[36]  Joseph Schneider.  The “greener grass” phenomenon: differential effects of a work context alternative on organizational participation and withdrawal intentions , 1976 .

[37]  G. R. Oldham.  ORGANIZATIONAL CHOICE AND SOME CORRELATES OF INDIVIDUALS' EXPECTANCIES1 , 1976 .

[38]  Leon Reinharth,et al.  A Test of Alternative Models of Expectancy Theory , 1976 .

[39]  Tamao Matsui,et al.  Effectiveness of self-generated outcomes for improving prediction in expectancy theory research , 1976 .

[40]  P. Muchinsky,et al.  Intrasubject predictions of occupational preference: The effect of manipulating components of the valence model , 1976 .

[41]  R. Pritchard,et al.  Relationships between personality variables and components of the expectancy--valence model. , 1976, Journal of Applied Psychology.

[42]  L. Dyer,et al.  Expectancy theory as a within-person behavioral choice model: An empirical test of some conceptual and methodological refinements , 1976 .

[43]  William H. Mobley,et al.  A Behavioral Choice Model Analysis of the Budget Allocation Behavior of Academic Deans , 1977 .

[44]  Paul M. Muchinsky.  A Comparison of Within- and Across-Subject Analysis of the Expectancy-Valence Model For Predicting Effort , 1977 .

[45]  Tamao Matsui,et al.  Validity of expectancy theory as a within-person behavioral choice model for sales activities. , 1977 .

[46]  Sheldon Zedeck,et al.  An information processing model and approach to the study of motivation , 1977 .

[47]  Lawrence H. Peters,et al.  Cognitive models of motivation, expectancy theory and effort: An analysis and empirical test , 1977 .

[48]  I. Ajzen,et al.  Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research , 1977 .

[49]  R. Kopelman.  ACROSS-INDIVIDUAL, WITHIN-INDIVIDUAL AND RETURN ON EFFORT VERSIONS OF EXPECTANCY THEORY1 , 1977 .

[50]  Within-person expectancy theory predictions of supervisory consideration and structure behavior. , 1978 .

[51]  Robert A. Snyder,et al.  Mid-career change in academia: The decision to become an administrator , 1978 .

[52]  A. Bandura.  Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. , 1977, Psychology Review.

[53]  R. Rosenthal.  Combining results of independent studies. , 1978 .

[54]  J. Greenhaus,et al.  Relationships between perceptions of organizational size and the organizational choice process , 1978 .

[55]  Robert L. Baker,et al.  Conceptual and empirical analysis of military recruit training attrition. , 1979 .

[56]  Occupational choice and expectancy-value theory: Testing some modifications. , 1979 .

[57]  J. Dillard.  APPLICABILITY OF AN OCCUPATIONAL GOAL-EXPECTANCY MODEL IN PROFESSIONAL ACCOUNTING ORGANIZATIONS* , 1979 .

[58]  Donald P. Schwab,et al.  Between-subjects expectancy theory research: A statistical review of studies predicting effort and performance. , 1979 .

[59]  J. Dillard,et al.  Sources of professional staff turnover in public accounting firms: Some further evidence , 1979 .

[60]  R. Kopelman.  Directionally different expectancy theory predictions of work motivation and job satisfaction , 1979 .

[61]  J. Dillard.  Valence-instrumentality-expectancy model validation using selected accounting groups , 1979 .

[62]  Cynthia M. Pavett,et al.  The prediction of effort and performance among hospital professionals: Moderating effects of feedback on expectancy theory formulations , 1979 .

[63]  J. Dillard,et al.  A comparison of V-I-E model predictions: A cross-national study in professional accounting firms , 1980 .

[64]  R. Ecob,et al.  Decision theory and occupational choice: Some longitudinal data , 1980 .

[65]  D. Ilgen,et al.  A Theory of Behavior in Organizations , 1980 .

[66]  P. Hom.  Expectancy predictions of reenlistment in the National Guard , 1980 .

[67]  Expectancy theory components and non‐expectancy moderators as predictors of physicians' preference for retirement , 1980 .

[68]  N. Schmitt,et al.  An evaluation of valence models of motivation to pursue various post high school alternatives , 1981 .

[69]  The expectancy model in the analysis of occupational preference and occupational choice , 1981 .

[70]  W. Michael,et al.  Predicting Student Grade Point Average at a Community College from Scholastic Aptitude Tests and from Measures Representing Three Constructs in Vroom's Expectancy Theory Model of Motivation , 1981 .

[71]  Gilbert A. Churchill,et al.  An examination of the anticipated-satisfaction importance valence controversy , 1981 .

[72]  A within‐subject analysis of valence models of job preference and anticipated satisfaction , 1981 .

[73]  Robert D. Pritchard,et al.  Expectancy theory measures: An empirical comparison in an experimental simulation. , 1981 .

[74]  Cynthia M. Pavett.  Evaluation of the Impact of Feedback on Performance and Motivation , 1983 .

[75]  K. Wheeler,et al.  Comparisons of self‐efficacy and expectancy models of occupational preferences for college males and females , 1983 .

[76]  John P. Wanous,et al.  Expectancy theory and occupational/organizational choices: A review and test , 1983 .

[77]  J. Fossum,et al.  An empirical comparison of within-subjects and between-subjects expectancy theory models☆ , 1983 .

[78]  P. Hom,et al.  The validity of Mobley's (1977) model of employee turnover. , 1984, Organizational behavior and human performance.

[79]  S. Raudenbush,et al.  Empirical Bayes Meta-Analysis , 1985 .

[80]  L. Hedges,et al.  Statistical Methods for Meta-Analysis , 1987 .

[81]  R. Kopelman,et al.  Comparison of Return-on-Effort and Conventional Expectancy Theory Predictions of Work Effort and Job Performance: Results from Three Field Studies , 1986 .

[82]  J. Mathieu.  The Influence of Positive and Negative Outcomes on Force Model Expectancy Predictions: Mixed Results from Two Samples , 1987 .

[83]  Ruth Kanfer,et al.  Task-Specific Motivation: An Integrative Approach to Issues of Measurement, Mechanisms, Processes, and Determinants , 1987 .

[84]  Wendy S. Becker,et al.  Motivation theory reconsidered. , 1987 .

[85]  John R. Hollenbeck,et al.  The effects of individual differences and goal origin on goal setting and performance , 1987 .

[86]  P. Hom,et al.  A comparison of different conceptualizations of perceived alternatives in turnover research , 1988 .

[87]  Lynn E. Miller,et al.  Improving Predictions in Expectancy Theory Research: Effects of Personality, Expectancies, and Norms , 1988 .

[88]  D. Nebeker,et al.  The Influence of Monetary Incentives on Goal Choice, Goal Commitment, and Task Performance , 1988 .

[89]  Thomas D. Wickens,et al.  Multiway contingency table analysis for the social sciences. , 1989 .

[90]  A. Kinicki.  Predicting Occupational Role Choices after Involuntary Job Loss. , 1989 .

[91]  T. Wickens.  Multiway Contingency Tables Analysis for the Social Sciences , 1989 .

[92]  H. Klein,et al.  An Integrated Control Theory Model of Work Motivation , 1989 .

[93]  G. McClelland,et al.  Across-persons versus within-persons tests of expectancy-value models: A methodological note , 1989 .

[94]  A. M. Mazen.  Testing an Integration of Vroom's Instrumentality Theory and Holland's Typology on Working Women. , 1989 .

[95]  Brian Mullen,et al.  Advanced BASIC meta-analysis , 1989 .

[96]  J. H. Bercken,et al.  International perspectives on achievement and task motivation , 1989 .

[97]  Nancy E. Betz,et al.  Utility of Expectancy Theory in Predicting Occupational Choices in College Students. , 1990 .

[98]  L. L. Cummings,et al.  Work in Organizations , 1990 .

[99]  R. Kanfer.  Motivation theory and industrial and organizational psychology. , 1990 .

[100]  Robert G. Lord,et al.  Effects of valence, expectancies, and goal-performance discrepancies in single and multiple goal environments. , 1990 .

[101]  B. Shamir.  Meaning, Self and Motivation in Organizations , 1991 .

[102]  T. P. Summers,et al.  Development of a turnover model that incorporates a matrix measure of valence-instrumentality-expectancy perceptions , 1991 .

[103]  H. Klein.  Further evidence on the relationship between goal setting and expectancy theories. , 1991 .

[104]  Martin G. Evans,et al.  The problem of analyzing multiplicative composites: Interactions revisited. , 1991 .

[105]  Paul W. Paese,et al.  An Empirical Comparison of Several Commonly Used Measures of Valence , 1991 .

[106]  Edwin A. Locke,et al.  Relationship of Goal Level to Valence and Instrumentality , 1992 .

[107]  J. Mathieu,et al.  Influences of Individual and Situational Characteristics on Measures of Training Effectiveness , 1992 .

[108]  Anthony S. Bryk,et al.  Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods , 1992 .

[109]  N. Sanders,et al.  Journal of behavioral decision making: "The need for contextual and technical knowledge in judgmental forecasting", 5 (1992) 39-52 , 1992 .

[110]  Mark E. Tubbs,et al.  Expectancy, valence, and motivational force functions in goal-setting research: an empirical test , 1993 .

[111]  Gwenn W. Gröndal,et al.  Meta-analytic procedures for social research , 1993 .

[112]  J. Shepperd.  Productivity loss in performance groups: A motivation analysis. , 1993 .

[113]  M. E. Tubbs,et al.  Commitment as a moderator of the goal−performance relation: a case for clearer construct definition , 1993 .

[114]  P. Gollwitzer.  Goal Achievement: The Role of Intentions , 1993 .

[115]  H. Klein,et al.  Antecedents of Goal Commitment: An Empirical Examination of Personal and Situational Factors1 , 1994 .

[116]  Edith D. de Leeuw,et al.  A comparison of nonresponse in mail, telephone, and face-to-face surveys , 1994 .

[117]  Blair T. Johnson,et al.  Comparison of three major meta-analytic approaches. , 1995 .

[118]  Joop J. Hox,et al.  Applied Multilevel Analysis. , 1995 .

[119]  N. Feather.  Expectations and Actions , 2021 .