Analysis of Acquired Volumes: Methodological Approach

The purpose of this paper is to review how 3D/4D echocardiographic images can be manipulated to maximize the information regarding cardiac structure to improve the diagnostic yield of congenital heart defects. The following topics are discussed: (1) the differences between 3D and 4D ultrasound; (2) basic imaging principles of four- dimensional ultrasound when using spatial-temporal image correlation, real-time volume display, and matrix array technology; (3) analysis of acquired volumes using X,Y and Z rotation, the transverse sweep, the spin technique, tomographic imaging, rendering, inversion, and B-flow. The conclusion is that while the 3D and 4D volumes are easy to acquire, the user must understand the number of tools available to enhance the examination of the fetal heart.

[1]  K. Nicolaides,et al.  Heart stroke volume and cardiac output by four‐dimensional ultrasound in normal fetuses , 2008, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[2]  P. Guéret,et al.  Cross-sectional echocardiography. III. Analysis of mathematic models for quantifying volume of symmetric and asymmetric left ventricles. , 1980, American heart journal.

[3]  D. Valsky,et al.  Fetal cardiac ventricle volumetry in the second half of gestation assessed by 4D ultrasound using STIC combined with inversion mode , 2007, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[4]  J. V. van Vugt,et al.  A systematic analysis of the feasibility of four‐dimensional ultrasound imaging using spatiotemporal image correlation in routine fetal echocardiography , 2008, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[5]  K. Thornburg,et al.  Coronary flow regulation in the fetal sheep. , 1999, American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology.

[6]  A. Weyman,et al.  Variable effects of changes in flow rate through the aortic, pulmonary and mitral valves on valve area and flow velocity: impact on quantitative Doppler flow calculations. , 1985, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[7]  T R Nelson,et al.  Three‐dimensional ultrasonography of normal fetal heart: comparison with two‐dimensional imaging. , 1998, Journal of ultrasound in medicine : official journal of the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine.

[8]  J. Huhta.  Congestive heart failure in the fetus , 2008 .

[9]  S. Yagel,et al.  Application of free‐hand three‐dimensional echocardiography in the evaluation of fetal cardiac ejection fraction: a preliminary study , 2004, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[10]  K. Kristoffersen,et al.  Methodology and basic problems related to blood flow studies in the human fetus. , 1984, Ultrasound in medicine & biology.

[11]  S. Hassan,et al.  Repeatability and Reproducibility of Fetal Cardiac Ventricular Volume Calculations Using Spatiotemporal Image Correlation and Virtual Organ Computer‐Aided Analysis , 2009, Journal of ultrasound in medicine : official journal of the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine.

[12]  B. Tutschek,et al.  Semi‐automatic segmentation of fetal cardiac cavities: progress towards an automated fetal echocardiogram , 2008, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[13]  N. Silverman,et al.  Determination ef ventricular volumes in human fetal hearts by two-dimensional echocardiography , 1995 .

[14]  R. Chaoui,et al.  [Doppler echocardiographic analysis of blood flow through the fetal aorta and pulmonary valve in the second half of pregnancy]. , 1995, Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde.

[15]  J M Simpson,et al.  Repeatability of echocardiographic measurements in the human fetus , 2002, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[16]  J. Bartlett,et al.  Reliability, repeatability and reproducibility: analysis of measurement errors in continuous variables , 2008, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[17]  Xiaokui Li,et al.  Real-time 3-dimensional Doppler echocardiography for the assessment of stroke volume: an in vivo human study compared with standard 2-dimensional echocardiography. , 2005, Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography.

[18]  M. Meyer-Wittkopf,et al.  Three‐dimensional quantitative echocardiographic assessment of ventricular volume in healthy human fetuses and in fetuses with congenital heart disease. , 2001, Journal of ultrasound in medicine : official journal of the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine.

[19]  G. Mielke,et al.  Cardiac Output and Central Distribution of Blood Flow in the Human Fetus , 2001, Circulation.

[20]  P Doubilet,et al.  Changes in intracardiac blood flow velocities and right and left ventricular stroke volumes with gestational age in the normal human fetus: a prospective Doppler echocardiographic study. , 1986, Circulation.

[21]  J. Veille,et al.  Evaluation of the human fetal cardiac size and function. , 1990, American journal of perinatology.

[22]  Barry N. Taylor,et al.  Guidelines for Evaluating and Expressing the Uncertainty of Nist Measurement Results , 2017 .

[23]  M. Tynan,et al.  Doppler echocardiographic evaluation of the normal human fetal heart. , 1987, British heart journal.

[24]  M. Sklansky,et al.  Spatio‐temporal image correlation (STIC): new technology for evaluation of the fetal heart , 2003, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[25]  R Gorlin,et al.  Problems in echocardiographic volume determinations: echocardiographic-angiographic correlations in the presence of absence of asynergy. , 1976, The American journal of cardiology.

[26]  Xiaokui Li,et al.  Fetal Ventricular Mass Determination on Three-Dimensional Echocardiography: Studies in Normal Fetuses and Validation Experiments , 2004, Circulation.

[27]  T. Nelson,et al.  Three‐dimensional echocardiographic evaluation of fetal heart anatomy and function: acquisition, analysis, and display. , 1996, Journal of ultrasound in medicine : official journal of the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine.

[28]  J C Huhta,et al.  Role of the pulmonary circulation in the distribution of human fetal cardiac output during the second half of pregnancy. , 1996, Circulation.

[29]  J. Espinoza,et al.  Three‐ and four‐dimensional reconstruction of the aortic and ductal arches using inversion mode: a new rendering algorithm for visualization of fluid‐filled anatomical structures , 2004, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[30]  Robert H. Anderson,et al.  Developmental patterning of the myocardium , 2000, The Anatomical record.

[31]  S. Hassan,et al.  Changes in Fetal Cardiac Geometry With Gestation , 2007, Journal of ultrasound in medicine : official journal of the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine.

[32]  D. Arduini,et al.  Fetal cardiac stroke volume determination by four‐dimensional ultrasound with spatio‐temporal image correlation compared with two‐dimensional and Doppler ultrasonography , 2007, Prenatal diagnosis.

[33]  J. Simpson.  Echocardiographic evaluation of cardiac function in the fetus , 2004, Prenatal diagnosis.

[34]  J. Espinoza,et al.  Examination of the fetal heart by four-dimensional (4D) ultrasound with spatio-temporal image correlation (STIC). , 2006, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[35]  P. Winberg,et al.  Left ventricular output during postnatal circulatory adaptation in healthy infants born at full term. , 1989, Archives of disease in childhood.

[36]  A. Weyman.  Cross-sectional echocardiography , 1982 .

[37]  J. V. van Vugt,et al.  Fetal cardiac function assessed with four‐dimensional ultrasound imaging using spatiotemporal image correlation , 2009, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[38]  G. Visser,et al.  Fetal cardiac output estimated by Doppler echocardiography during mid- and late gestation. , 1987, The American journal of cardiology.

[39]  Xiaokui Li,et al.  Validation of Volume and Mass Assessments for Human Fetal Heart Imaging by 4‐Dimensional Spatiotemporal Image Correlation Echocardiography , 2004, Journal of ultrasound in medicine : official journal of the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine.