Esophageal cancer.

N Engl J Med 2003;349:2241-52. Copyright © 2003 Massachusetts Medical Society. sophageal cancer is one of the least studied and deadliest cancers worldwide. During the past three decades, important changes have occurred in the epidemiologic patterns associated with this disease. Recent advances in the diagnosis, staging, and treatment of this neoplastic condition have led to small but significant improvements in survival. These new observations serve as the focus of this review.

[1]  Dennis M. Riehle,et al.  Extent of high-grade dysplasia in Barrett's esophagus correlates with risk of adenocarcinoma. , 2001, Gastroenterology.

[2]  A. Wolk,et al.  Fruit and vegetable consumption in the prevention of oesophageal and cardia cancers , 2001, European journal of cancer prevention : the official journal of the European Cancer Prevention Organisation.

[3]  M. Gammon,et al.  Body mass index and risk of adenocarcinomas of the esophagus and gastric cardia. , 1998, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[4]  T. Hickish,et al.  A phase II study in advanced gastro-esophageal cancer using epirubicin and cisplatin in combination with continuous infusion 5-fluorouracil (ECF). , 1994, Annals of oncology : official journal of the European Society for Medical Oncology.

[5]  M. Hollstein,et al.  The tylosis esophageal cancer (TOC) locus: more than just a familial cancer gene. , 1999, Diseases of the esophagus : official journal of the International Society for Diseases of the Esophagus.

[6]  P. Fuerst,et al.  Familial Barrett's esophagus associated with adenocarcinoma. , 1992, Gastroenterology.

[7]  A. Lindgren,et al.  Heredity and risk of cancer of the esophagus and gastric cardia. , 2000, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[8]  R. Sampliner,et al.  Normalization of esophageal pH with high-dose proton pump inhibitor therapy does not result in regression of Barrett's esophagus. , 1997, The American journal of gastroenterology.

[9]  D. Schaid,et al.  Barrett's esophagus: prevalence in symptomatic relatives. , 2002 .

[10]  D. Ransohoff,et al.  Gastroesophageal reflux, barrett esophagus, and esophageal cancer: scientific review. , 2002, JAMA.

[11]  Prateek Sharma Current status of ablative therapies in esophageal disorders , 2001, Current gastroenterology reports.

[12]  M. Blaser,et al.  The seroprevalence of cagA-positive Helicobacter pylori strains in the spectrum of gastroesophageal reflux disease. , 1998, Gastroenterology.

[13]  M. Gammon,et al.  Tobacco, alcohol, and socioeconomic status and adenocarcinomas of the esophagus and gastric cardia. , 1997, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[14]  G. Schwartz,et al.  Phase II trial of weekly irinotecan plus cisplatin in advanced esophageal cancer. , 1999, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[15]  Kenneth K Wang,et al.  Impact of EUS-guided fine-needle aspiration on lymph node staging in patients with esophageal carcinoma. , 2001, Gastrointestinal endoscopy.

[16]  Leslie Bernstein,et al.  A multiethnic population-based study of smoking, alcohol and body size and risk of adenocarcinomas of the stomach and esophagus (United States) , 2001, Cancer Causes & Control.

[17]  R. Earlam,et al.  Oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma: II. A critical review of radiotherapy , 1980 .

[18]  J. Cooper,et al.  Combined chemotherapy and radiotherapy compared with radiotherapy alone in patients with cancer of the esophagus. , 1992, The New England journal of medicine.

[19]  P. Pairolero,et al.  Barrett's esophagus with high-grade dysplasia: an indication for esophagectomy? , 1992, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[20]  C. Reed,et al.  Surgical management of esophageal carcinoma. , 1999, The oncologist.

[21]  P. Pairolero,et al.  High-grade esophageal dysplasia: long-term survival and quality of life after esophagectomy. , 2002, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[22]  M. Iannettoni,et al.  Randomized trial of preoperative chemoradiation versus surgery alone in patients with locoregional esophageal carcinoma. , 2001, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[23]  B. Ferris,et al.  Relationships between operative approaches and outcomes in esophageal cancer. , 1998, American journal of surgery.

[24]  A. Bhattacharyya,et al.  Laser and multipolar electrocoagulation ablation of early Barrett's adenocarcinoma: long-term follow-up. , 1999, Gastrointestinal endoscopy.

[25]  P. Puttisak,et al.  A prospective study of combined therapy in esophageal cancer. , 1994, Hepato-gastroenterology.

[26]  C. Mcnulty,et al.  The significance of cagA + Helicobacter pylori in reflux oesophagitis , 2001, Gut.

[27]  A. Ghavamzadeh,et al.  Esophageal cancer in Iran. , 2001, Seminars in oncology.

[28]  A. Stewart,et al.  Esophageal cancer: results of an American College of Surgeons Patient Care Evaluation Study. , 2000, Journal of the American College of Surgeons.

[29]  J. Lagergren,et al.  Body Mass and Reflux Oesophagitis: an Oestrogen-dependent Association? , 2002, Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology.

[30]  M. Gammon,et al.  Risk of esophageal and gastric adenocarcinomas in relation to use of calcium channel blockers, asthma drugs, and other medications that promote gastroesophageal reflux. , 1998, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[31]  J. Dam Endosonographic Evaluation of the Patient With Esophageal Cancer , 1997 .

[32]  S. Larson,et al.  Whole body 18FDG-PET and the response of esophageal cancer to induction therapy: results of a prospective trial. , 2003, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[33]  D. Sugarbaker,et al.  Transthoracic esophagectomy with radical mediastinal and abdominal lymph node dissection and cervical esophagogastrostomy for esophageal carcinoma. , 2001, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[34]  D. Girling Surgical resection with or without preoperative chemotherapy in oesophageal cancer: a randomised controlled trial , 2002, The Lancet.

[35]  K. Mealy,et al.  Tumour marker detection in oesophageal carcinoma. , 1996, European journal of surgical oncology : the journal of the European Society of Surgical Oncology and the British Association of Surgical Oncology.

[36]  P. Dupont,et al.  Utility of positron emission tomography for the staging of patients with potentially operable esophageal carcinoma. , 2000, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[37]  J. Ajani,et al.  Palliation of malignant dysphagia and fistulae with coated expandable metal stents: experience with 101 patients. , 1998, Gastrointestinal endoscopy.

[38]  J. Cooper,et al.  Chemoradiotherapy of locally advanced esophageal cancer: long-term follow-up of a prospective randomized trial (RTOG 85-01). Radiation Therapy Oncology Group. , 1999, JAMA.

[39]  A. Paccagnella,et al.  Phase II study of cisplatin, 5-FU, and allopurinol in advanced esophageal cancer. , 1986, Cancer treatment reports.

[40]  M. Krasna,et al.  Combined thoracoscopic/laparoscopic staging of esophageal cancer. , 1996, The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery.

[41]  V. Gebski,et al.  A randomized phase III trial of preoperative chemoradiation followed by surgery (CR-S) versus surgery alone (S) for localized resectable cancer of the esophagus , 2002 .

[42]  J. Wong,et al.  Postoperative radiotherapy for carcinoma of the esophagus: a prospective, randomized controlled study. , 1993, Surgery.

[43]  Alicia Samuels,et al.  Cancer Statistics, 2003 , 2003, CA: a cancer journal for clinicians.

[44]  V. Rusch,et al.  Malignant esophagorespiratory fistula: management options and survival. , 1991, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[45]  A B West,et al.  An inverse relation between cagA+ strains of Helicobacter pylori infection and risk of esophageal and gastric cardia adenocarcinoma. , 1998, Cancer research.

[46]  J. Ajani,et al.  Chemotherapy followed by surgery compared with surgery alone for localized esophageal cancer. , 1998, The New England journal of medicine.

[47]  USNR LCDR Otto T. Nebel MC,et al.  Symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux: Incidence and precipitating factors , 2005, The American Journal of Digestive Diseases.

[48]  M Dosemeci,et al.  Excess incidence of squamous cell esophageal cancer among US Black men: role of social class and other risk factors. , 2000, American journal of epidemiology.

[49]  J. Stanford,et al.  Gastroesophageal reflux disease, use of H2 receptor antagonists, and risk of esophageal and gastric cancer , 2000, Cancer Causes & Control.

[50]  J. Goldblum,et al.  Jumbo biopsy forceps protocol still misses unsuspected cancer in Barrett's esophagus with high-grade dysplasia. , 1999, Gastrointestinal endoscopy.

[51]  D. Forman,et al.  Role of Helicobacter pylori CagA+ strains and risk of adenocarcinoma of the stomach and esophagus. , 2001, International journal of cancer.

[52]  M. Bains,et al.  Preoperative therapy for esophageal cancer: a randomized comparison of chemotherapy versus radiation therapy. , 1990, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[53]  A. Wolk,et al.  Antioxidants and cancers of the esophagus and gastric cardia , 2000, International journal of cancer.

[54]  N. Geller,et al.  Adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastroesophageal junction. Prognostic factors and results of therapy , 1985, Cancer.

[55]  J. Ferlay,et al.  Estimates of the worldwide mortality from 25 cancers in 1990 , 1999, International journal of cancer.

[56]  G. Falk,et al.  The incidence of adenocarcinoma and dysplasia in Barrett's esophagus: Report on the cleveland clinic barrett's esophagus registry , 1999, American Journal of Gastroenterology.

[57]  K. Chu,et al.  Preoperative chemoradiation for squamous cell esophageal cancer: a prospective randomized trial (abstract) , 1998 .

[58]  A. Fingerhut,et al.  Postoperative radiation therapy does not increase survival after curative resection for squamous cell carcinoma of the middle and lower esophagus as shown by a multicenter controlled trial. French University Association for Surgical Research. , 1991, Surgery, gynecology & obstetrics.

[59]  A. Neugut,et al.  Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer and Increased Risk for Esophageal Carcinoma , 1998, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[60]  S. Tsugane,et al.  A randomized trial of surgery with and without chemotherapy for localized squamous carcinoma of the thoracic esophagus: the Japan Clinical Oncology Group Study. , 1997, The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery.

[61]  M. Parmar,et al.  Preoperative radiotherapy in esophageal carcinoma: a meta-analysis using individual patient data (Oesophageal Cancer Collaborative Group). , 1998, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[62]  L. Larsson,et al.  Relationship of Plummer-Vinson disease to cancer of the upper alimentary tract in Sweden. , 1975, Cancer research.

[63]  R. Sampliner,et al.  Barrett's esophagus: update on screening, surveillance, and treatment. , 1999, Archives of internal medicine.

[64]  J. V. van Sandick,et al.  Prognostic Value of Laurén Classification and c-erbB-2 Oncogene Overexpression in Adenocarcinoma of the Esophagus and Gastroesophageal Junction , 1999, Annals of Surgical Oncology.

[65]  R. Heelan,et al.  A phase II trial of paclitaxel and cisplatin in patients with advanced carcinoma of the esophagus. , 2000, Cancer journal.

[66]  D. Glineur,et al.  Skeletonizing En Bloc Esophagectomy for Cancer , 2001, Annals of surgery.

[67]  T. Woodward,et al.  Apoptosis is inhibited early in the dysplasia-carcinoma sequence of Barrett esophagus. , 1997, Archives of surgery.

[68]  J. Fraumeni,et al.  Changing patterns in the incidence of esophageal and gastric carcinoma in the United States , 1998, Cancer.

[69]  S. Spechler,et al.  Barrett's esophagus. , 1994, Seminars in oncology.

[70]  G. Noël,et al.  INT 0123 (Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 94-05) Phase III Trial of Combined-Modality Therapy for Esophageal Cancer: High-Dose Versus Standard-Dose Radiation Therapy , 2002 .

[71]  Õ. Horváth,et al.  [Late malignant transformation of chronic corrosive oesophageal strictures]. , 2005, Magyar sebeszet.

[72]  R. Ginsberg,et al.  INT 0123 (Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 94-05) phase III trial of combined-modality therapy for esophageal cancer: high-dose versus standard-dose radiation therapy. , 2002, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[73]  J. Cooper,et al.  Progress report of combined chemoradiotherapy versus radiotherapy alone in patients with esophageal cancer: an intergroup study. , 1997, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[74]  E. Kuipers,et al.  Endoscopic regression of Barrett’s oesophagus during omeprazole treatment; a randomised double blind study , 1999, Gut.

[75]  I. Penman,et al.  A randomized trial of thermal ablative therapy versus expandable metal stents in the palliative treatment of patients with esophageal carcinoma. , 2001, Gastrointestinal endoscopy.

[76]  A. Giatromanolaki,et al.  Outcome of patients receiving photodynamic therapy for early esophageal cancer. , 2000, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[77]  L. Karnell,et al.  National Cancer Data Base report on esophageal carcinoma , 1996, Cancer.

[78]  S. Knuutila,et al.  DNA copy number profiling in esophageal Barrett adenocarcinoma: comparison with gastric adenocarcinoma and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. , 2001, Cancer genetics and cytogenetics.

[79]  B. Wijnhoven,et al.  Molecular Biology of Barrett’s Adenocarcinoma , 2001, Annals of surgery.

[80]  R. Hatlevoll,et al.  Pre-operative radiotherapy prolongs survival in operable esophageal carcinoma: A randomized, multicenter study of pre-operative radiotherapy and chemotherapy. The second scandinavian trial in esophageal cancer , 1992, World Journal of Surgery.

[81]  Blot Wj,et al.  The changing epidemiology of esophageal cancer. , 1999, Seminars in oncology.

[82]  M. Loda,et al.  Loss or altered subcellular localization of p27 in Barrett's associated adenocarcinoma. , 1998, Cancer research.

[83]  G. Triadafilopoulos,et al.  Prevalence of Barrett's esophagus in asymptomatic individuals. , 2002, Gastroenterology.

[84]  Jesper Lagergren,et al.  Association between Medications That Relax the Lower Esophageal Sphincter and Risk for Esophageal Adenocarcinoma , 2000, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[85]  M. Feith,et al.  Histologic Tumor Type Is an Independent Prognostic Parameter in Esophageal Cancer: Lessons From More Than 1,000 Consecutive Resections at a Single Center in the Western World , 2001, Annals of surgery.

[86]  Paul Fockens,et al.  Extended transthoracic resection compared with limited transhiatal resection for adenocarcinoma of the esophagus. , 2002, The New England journal of medicine.

[87]  R. Bergström,et al.  No relation between body mass and gastro-oesophageal reflux symptoms in a Swedish population based study , 2000, Gut.

[88]  W. Hop,et al.  Reduced expression of the cadherin–catenin complex in oesophageal adenocarcinoma correlates with poor prognosis , 1997, The Journal of pathology.

[89]  L. Collette,et al.  Randomised phase II study of cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) versus cisplatin alone in advanced squamous cell oesophageal cancer. , 1997, European journal of cancer.

[90]  J. Bosset,et al.  Chemotherapy followed by surgery compared with surgery alone in squamous-cell cancer of the esophagus , 1998 .

[91]  R. Sandler,et al.  The risk of esophageal cancer in patients with achalasia. A population-based study. , 1995, JAMA.

[92]  M. Omary,et al.  Cyclooxygenase 2 expression in Barrett's esophagus and adenocarcinoma: Ex vivo induction by bile salts and acid exposure. , 2000, Gastroenterology.

[93]  S. Stringer,et al.  Synchronous and metachronous squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck mucosal sites. , 2001, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[94]  I. Leigh,et al.  Tylosis associated with carcinoma of the oesophagus and oral leukoplakia in a large Liverpool family--a review of six generations. , 1994, European journal of cancer. Part B, Oral oncology.

[95]  A. Neugut,et al.  Increased expression of the cyclin D1 gene in Barrett's esophagus. , 1996, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[96]  R. Odze,et al.  Transforming growth factor-alpha, epidermal growth factor receptor, and MiB-1 expression in Barrett's-associated neoplasia: correlation with prognosis. , 1997, Modern pathology : an official journal of the United States and Canadian Academy of Pathology, Inc.

[97]  E. Stefani,et al.  Black (air-cured) and blond (flue-cured) tobacco and cancer risk. III: Oesophageal cancer. , 1993, European journal of cancer.

[98]  P. Enzinger,et al.  Chemotherapy in esophageal cancer. , 1999, Seminars in oncology.

[99]  T. Hickish,et al.  Prospective randomized trial comparing mitomycin, cisplatin, and protracted venous-infusion fluorouracil (PVI 5-FU) With epirubicin, cisplatin, and PVI 5-FU in advanced esophagogastric cancer. , 2002, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[100]  T. Hickish,et al.  Randomized trial comparing epirubicin, cisplatin, and fluorouracil versus fluorouracil, doxorubicin, and methotrexate in advanced esophagogastric cancer. , 1997, Journal of Clinical Oncology.

[101]  J. Byrne,et al.  Prevention of the neoplastic progression of Barrett's oesophagus by endoscopic argon beam plasma ablation , 2001, The British journal of surgery.

[102]  A. Lindgren,et al.  Symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux as a risk factor for esophageal adenocarcinoma. , 1999, The New England journal of medicine.

[103]  J. Luketich,et al.  Adenocarcinoma in a mid-esophageal diverticulum. , 2000, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[104]  L. Signorello,et al.  Life‐style factors and medical conditions in relation to esophageal cancer by histologic type in a low‐risk population , 1996, International journal of cancer.

[105]  M. Hassel,et al.  A randomized study of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery versus surgery for localized squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus , 1994, Cancer.

[106]  M. P. Saunders,et al.  Palliation of inoperable esophageal carcinoma: a prospective randomized trial of laser therapy and stent placement. , 1997, Radiology.

[107]  A. Schned,et al.  The Development of Dysplasia and Adenocarcinoma During Endoscopic Surveillance of Barrett's Esophagus , 1998, American Journal of Gastroenterology.

[108]  J R Siewert,et al.  Chromosomal imbalances in Barrett's adenocarcinoma and the metaplasia-dysplasia-carcinoma sequence. , 2000, The American journal of pathology.

[109]  C. H. Spiridonidis,et al.  A phase II evaluation of high dose cisplatin and etoposide in patients with advanced esophageal adenocarcinoma , 1996, Cancer.

[110]  C. Compton,et al.  AJCC Cancer Staging Manual , 2002, Springer New York.

[111]  T. Walsh,et al.  A comparison of multimodal therapy and surgery for esophageal adenocarcinoma. , 1996, The New England journal of medicine.