Prefrontal cortex and drug abuse vulnerability: Translation to prevention and treatment interventions

Vulnerability to drug abuse is related to both reward seeking and impulsivity, two constructs thought to have a biological basis in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). This review addresses similarities and differences in neuroanatomy, neurochemistry and behavior associated with PFC function in rodents and humans. Emphasis is placed on monoamine and amino acid neurotransmitter systems located in anatomically distinct subregions: medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC); lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC); anterior cingulate cortex (ACC); and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). While there are complex interconnections and overlapping functions among these regions, each is thought to be involved in various functions related to health-related risk behaviors and drug abuse vulnerability. Among the various functions implicated, evidence suggests that mPFC is involved in reward processing, attention and drug reinstatement; lPFC is involved in decision-making, behavioral inhibition and attentional gating; ACC is involved in attention, emotional processing and self-monitoring; and OFC is involved in behavioral inhibition, signaling of expected outcomes and reward/punishment sensitivity. Individual differences (e.g., age and sex) influence functioning of these regions, which, in turn, impacts drug abuse vulnerability. Implications for the development of drug abuse prevention and treatment strategies aimed at engaging PFC inhibitory processes that may reduce risk-related behaviors are discussed, including the design of effective public service announcements, cognitive exercises, physical activity, direct current stimulation, feedback control training and pharmacotherapies. A major challenge in drug abuse prevention and treatment rests with improving intervention strategies aimed at strengthening PFC inhibitory systems among at-risk individuals.

[1]  F. Mora,et al.  Prefrontal cortex–nucleus accumbens interaction: In vivo modulation by dopamine and glutamate in the prefrontal cortex , 2008, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[2]  R. A. Fuchs,et al.  The Role of the Dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex, Basolateral Amygdala, and Dorsal Hippocampus in Contextual Reinstatement of Cocaine Seeking in Rats , 2005, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[3]  J. Kaiser,et al.  Brain Regions Related to Tool Use and Action Knowledge Reflect Nicotine Dependence , 2009, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[4]  A. Haapalinna,et al.  α‐Adrenoceptor‐Mediated Modulation of 5‐HT2 Receptor Agonist Induced Impulsive Responding in a 5‐Choice Serial Reaction Time Task , 2003 .

[5]  T. Sawaguchi,et al.  Delayed response deficit in monkeys by locally disturbed prefrontal neuronal activity by bicuculline , 1988, Behavioural Brain Research.

[6]  Daniel Hoyer,et al.  Molecular, pharmacological and functional diversity of 5-HT receptors , 2002, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[7]  Geoffrey Schoenbaum,et al.  Lesions of orbitofrontal cortex and basolateral amygdala complex disrupt acquisition of odor-guided discriminations and reversals. , 2003, Learning & memory.

[8]  P S Goldman-Rakic,et al.  Increased dopamine turnover in the prefrontal cortex impairs spatial working memory performance in rats and monkeys. , 1996, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[9]  L. Diergaarde,et al.  Impulsive Choice and Impulsive Action Predict Vulnerability to Distinct Stages of Nicotine Seeking in Rats , 2008, Biological Psychiatry.

[10]  P. Kalivas,et al.  Limbic and Motor Circuitry Underlying Footshock-Induced Reinstatement of Cocaine-Seeking Behavior , 2004, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[11]  I. Divac,et al.  Biochemical evidence for glutamate as neurotransmitter in corticostriatal and corticothalamic fibres in rat brain , 1981, Neuroscience.

[12]  John D E Gabrieli,et al.  Development of the declarative memory system in the human brain , 2007, Nature Neuroscience.

[13]  A. Dietrich,et al.  Functional dissociation of the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus in timing behavior. , 1998, Behavioral neuroscience.

[14]  H E ROSVOLD,et al.  A continuous performance test of brain damage. , 1956, Journal of consulting psychology.

[15]  A. Craig Forebrain emotional asymmetry: a neuroanatomical basis? , 2005, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[16]  P. Goldman-Rakic,et al.  Amphetamine sensitization impairs cognition and reduces dopamine turnover in primate prefrontal cortex , 2005, Biological Psychiatry.

[17]  L. Spear The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations , 2000, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[18]  T. Robbins,et al.  Differential effects of insular and ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions on risky decision-making , 2008, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[19]  A. M. Crawford,et al.  Parallel developmental trajectories of sensation seeking and regular substance use in adolescents. , 2003, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[20]  Shakti Sharma,et al.  Early environmental regulation of forebrain glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: implications for adrenocortical responses to stress. , 1996, Developmental neuroscience.

[21]  W. Overman,et al.  Adult sex differences on a decision-making task previously shown to depend on the orbital prefrontal cortex. , 2001, Behavioral neuroscience.

[22]  J. O'Doherty,et al.  The Role of the Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex in Abstract State-Based Inference during Decision Making in Humans , 2006, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[23]  T. Robbins,et al.  Effects of lesions to ascending noradrenergic neurones on performance of a 5-choice serial reaction task in rats; implications for theories of dorsal noradrenergic bundle function based on selective attention and arousal , 1983, Behavioural Brain Research.

[24]  H. Tanila,et al.  Medetomidine, atipamezole, and guanfacine in delayed response performance of aged monkeys , 1996, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[25]  Steven G. Potkin,et al.  Sex-Related Difference in Amygdala Activity during Emotionally Influenced Memory Storage , 2001, Neurobiology of Learning and Memory.

[26]  R. Roth,et al.  Role of the Amygdala in the Coordination of Behavioral, Neuroendocrine, and Prefrontal Cortical Monoamine Responses to Psychological Stress in the Rat , 1996 .

[27]  Marc A Schuckit,et al.  Decision making by methamphetamine-dependent subjects is associated with error-rate-independent decrease in prefrontal and parietal activation , 2003, Biological Psychiatry.

[28]  J. Metcalfe,et al.  Neural Systems and Cue-Induced Cocaine Craving , 2002, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[29]  E. Rolls,et al.  Reward-related Reversal Learning after Surgical Excisions in Orbito-frontal or Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Humans , 2004, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[30]  Harriet de Wit,et al.  Therapeutic doses of diazepam do not alter impulsive behavior in humans , 2004, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[31]  G. Quirk,et al.  Delayed recall of fear extinction in rats with lesions of ventral medial prefrontal cortex. , 2004, Learning & memory.

[32]  Joselyn McLaughlin,et al.  Selective inactivation of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and the basolateral amygdala attenuates conditioned-cued reinstatement of extinguished cocaine-seeking behavior in rats , 2003, Psychopharmacology.

[33]  Dawn M Eagle,et al.  Deficits in Impulse Control Associated with Tonically-elevated Serotonergic Function in Rat Prefrontal Cortex , 2002, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[34]  C. Woolsey,et al.  The orbitofrontal cortex and its connections with the mediodorsal nucleus in rabbit, sheep and cat. , 1948, Research publications - Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease.

[35]  Diana L. Eldreth,et al.  Neurocognitive skills moderate urban male adolescents' responses to preventive intervention materials. , 2006, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[36]  D. Joel,et al.  ‘Compulsive’ lever pressing in rats is enhanced following lesions to the orbital cortex, but not to the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala or to the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex , 2005, The European journal of neuroscience.

[37]  Goldman-Rakic Ps,et al.  Motor control function of the prefrontal cortex. , 1987 .

[38]  A. Belger,et al.  NMDA receptor antagonist effects, cortical glutamatergic function, and schizophrenia: toward a paradigm shift in medication development , 2003, Psychopharmacology.

[39]  Jane E. Joseph,et al.  Human experience seeking correlates with hippocampus volume: Convergent evidence from manual tracing and voxel-based morphometry , 2007, Neuropsychologia.

[40]  Trevor W. Robbins,et al.  Local glutamate receptor antagonism in the rat prefrontal cortex disrupts response inhibition in a visuospatial attentional task , 2005, Psychopharmacology.

[41]  R. Poldrack,et al.  Cortical and Subcortical Contributions to Stop Signal Response Inhibition: Role of the Subthalamic Nucleus , 2006, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[42]  M. Fillmore,et al.  Individual differences in drug abuse vulnerability: d-Amphetamine and sensation-seeking status , 2006, Psychopharmacology.

[43]  T. Robbins,et al.  Double dissociation of serotonergic and dopaminergic mechanisms on attentional performance using a rodent five-choice reaction time task , 2002, Psychopharmacology.

[44]  Danielle L. Graham,et al.  Yohimbine Increases Impulsivity Through Activation of cAMP Response Element Binding in the Orbitofrontal Cortex , 2010, Biological Psychiatry.

[45]  M. Roesch,et al.  Orbitofrontal cortex, decision-making and drug addiction , 2006, Trends in Neurosciences.

[46]  J. Glowinski,et al.  Influence of the hippocampus on interneurons of the rat prefrontal cortex , 2004, The European journal of neuroscience.

[47]  Daphna Joel,et al.  The orbital cortex in rats topographically projects to central parts of the caudate–putamen complex , 2008, Neuroscience Letters.

[48]  R. Oosting,et al.  Delay aversion: Effects of 7-OH-DPAT, 5-HT1A/1B-receptor stimulation and d-cycloserine , 2006, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[49]  D. Quadagno,et al.  Sensation Seeking and Hormones in Men and Women: Exploring the Link , 2001, Hormones and Behavior.

[50]  P. Molinoff,et al.  International Union of Pharmacology nomenclature of adrenoceptors. , 1994, Pharmacological reviews.

[51]  Jane E Joseph,et al.  Neural Correlates of Emotional Reactivity in Sensation Seeking , 2009, Psychological science.

[52]  T. Paus,et al.  Functional connectivity of the anterior cingulate cortex within the human frontal lobe: a brain-mapping meta-analysis , 2000, Experimental Brain Research.

[53]  L. Donohew,et al.  Television campaigns and adolescent marijuana use: tests of sensation seeking targeting. , 2001, American journal of public health.

[54]  Joseph E LeDoux,et al.  Differential contribution of dorsal and ventral medial prefrontal cortex to the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear in rats. , 1995, Behavioral neuroscience.

[55]  L. Swanson,et al.  Tracing Central Pathways with the Autoradiographic Method 1 , 2 , 1981, The journal of histochemistry and cytochemistry : official journal of the Histochemistry Society.

[56]  E. Audinat,et al.  Afferent connections of the medial frontal cortex of the rat. II. Cortical and subcortical afferents , 1995, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[57]  Karl T. Schmidt,et al.  Aerobic exercise decreases the positive-reinforcing effects of cocaine. , 2008, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[58]  J. Price,et al.  Architectonic subdivision of the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex in the macaque monkey , 1994, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[59]  J. Stewart,et al.  A role for the prefrontal cortex in stress- and cocaine-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking in rats , 2003, Psychopharmacology.

[60]  Georgiy Bobashev,et al.  Neurocognitive characterizations of Russian heroin addicts without a significant history of other drug use. , 2007, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[61]  R. Dingledine N‐methyl aspartate activates voltage‐dependent calcium conductance in rat hippocampal pyramidal cells. , 1983, The Journal of physiology.

[62]  E. Claus,et al.  Brain activation during the Stroop task in adolescents with severe substance and conduct problems: A pilot study. , 2007, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[63]  T. Robbins,et al.  Selective depletion of cortical noradrenaline by anti-dopamine beta-hydroxylase–saporin impairs attentional function and enhances the effects of guanfacine in the rat , 2006, Psychopharmacology.

[64]  T. Wills,et al.  Novelty seeking, risk taking, and related constructs as predictors of adolescent substance use: an application of Cloninger's theory. , 1994, Journal of substance abuse.

[65]  Yanhua Lin,et al.  Sex Differences in the Effects of Acute and Chronic Stress and Recovery after Long-Term Stress on Stress-Related Brain Regions of Rats , 2008, Cerebral cortex.

[66]  Geoffrey Schoenbaum,et al.  The Role of Orbitofrontal Cortex in Drug Addiction: A Review of Preclinical Studies , 2008, Biological Psychiatry.

[67]  David Watson,et al.  Neuropsychological Characteristics and Personality Traits in Pathological Gambling , 2008, CNS Spectrums.

[68]  A. Damasio,et al.  Deciding Advantageously Before Knowing the Advantageous Strategy , 1997, Science.

[69]  Carlo Contoreggi,et al.  Risky decision making and the anterior cingulate cortex in abstinent drug abusers and nonusers. , 2005, Brain research. Cognitive brain research.

[70]  M. Walton,et al.  The Role of Rat Medial Frontal Cortex in Effort-Based Decision Making , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[71]  J. Sirviö,et al.  Studies on the involvement of the dopaminergic system in the 5-HT2 agonist (DOI)-induced premature responding in a five-choice serial reaction time task , 2001, Brain Research Bulletin.

[72]  D. Joel,et al.  Role of the orbital cortex and of the serotonergic system in a rat model of obsessive compulsive disorder , 2005, Neuroscience.

[73]  S. Hyman,et al.  Neural mechanisms of addiction: the role of reward-related learning and memory. , 2006, Annual review of neuroscience.

[74]  A. Markou,et al.  The effects of the mGluR5 antagonist MPEP and the mGluR2/3 antagonist LY341495 on rats' performance in the 5-choice serial reaction time task , 2007, Neuropharmacology.

[75]  G. Paxinos,et al.  Atlas of the Human Brain , 2000 .

[76]  H. Fox,et al.  Interactive effects of cumulative stress and impulsivity on alcohol consumption. , 2010, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[77]  Suzanne E. Welcome,et al.  Mapping cortical change across the human life span , 2003, Nature Neuroscience.

[78]  D. Pandya,et al.  Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: comparative cytoarchitectonic analysis in the human and the macaque brain and corticocortical connection patterns , 1999, The European journal of neuroscience.

[79]  Young T. Hong,et al.  Nucleus Accumbens D2/3 Receptors Predict Trait Impulsivity and Cocaine Reinforcement , 2007, Science.

[80]  T. Robbins,et al.  Similar Effects of the Selective Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitor Atomoxetine on Three Distinct Forms of Impulsivity in the Rat , 2008, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[81]  H. Steinbusch,et al.  Distribution of serotonin-immunoreactivity in the central nervous system of the rat—Cell bodies and terminals , 1981, Neuroscience.

[82]  J. W. Papez VISCERAL BRAIN, ITS COMPONENT PARTS AND THEIR CONNECTIONS , 1958, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.

[83]  R. Velleman,et al.  The role of the family in preventing and intervening with substance use and misuse: a comprehensive review of family interventions, with a focus on young people. , 2005, Drug and alcohol review.

[84]  Cong Huang,et al.  Gender differences in the neural correlates of response inhibition during a stop signal task , 2006, NeuroImage.

[85]  Nora D. Volkow,et al.  The addicted human brain viewed in the light of imaging studies: brain circuits and treatment strategies , 2004, Neuropharmacology.

[86]  Jennifer L. Perry,et al.  The role of impulsive behavior in drug abuse , 2008, Psychopharmacology.

[87]  M. Fillmore,et al.  Impaired inhibitory control of behavior in chronic cocaine users. , 2002, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[88]  T. Sawaguchi,et al.  GABAergic inhibition of neuronal activity in the primate motor and premotor cortex during voluntary movement. , 1992, Journal of neurophysiology.

[89]  T. Robbins,et al.  Neurochemical Modulation of Response Inhibition and Probabilistic Learning in Humans , 2006, Science.

[90]  T. Preuss Do Rats Have Prefrontal Cortex? The Rose-Woolsey-Akert Program Reconsidered , 1995, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[91]  Trevor Sharp,et al.  A review of central 5-HT receptors and their function , 1999, Neuropharmacology.

[92]  Jonathan D. Cohen,et al.  Anterior Cingulate Conflict Monitoring and Adjustments in Control , 2004, Science.

[93]  T. Robbins,et al.  Risk taking during decision-making in normal volunteers changes with age , 2004, Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society.

[94]  M. Roesch,et al.  Neuronal Activity Related to Reward Value and Motivation in Primate Frontal Cortex , 2004, Science.

[95]  C. Yokoyama,et al.  Relationship between limbic and cortical 5-HT neurotransmission and acquisition and reversal learning in a go/no-go task in rats , 2006, Psychopharmacology.

[96]  M. Vanhanen,et al.  Guanfacine and Clonidine, Alpha2-Agonists, Improve Paired Associates Learning, but not Delayed Matching to Sample, in Humans , 1999, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[97]  M. Stoolmiller,et al.  Effects of a therapeutic intervention for foster preschoolers on diurnal cortisol activity , 2007, Psychoneuroendocrinology.

[98]  S. Ball Chapter 12 – Personality Traits, Disorders, and Substance Abuse , 2004 .

[99]  A. Damasio,et al.  Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex , 1994, Cognition.

[100]  M. Molliver,et al.  Dual serotoninergic projections to forebrain in the rat: Morphologically distinct 5‐HT axon terminals exhibit differential vulnerability to neurotoxic amphetamine derivatives , 1991, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[101]  M. Reivich,et al.  Limbic activation during cue-induced cocaine craving. , 1999, The American journal of psychiatry.

[102]  Laura D’Antuono,et al.  Impulsivity and semantic/emotional processing: An examination of the N400 wave , 2009, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[103]  P. Kalivas The glutamate homeostasis hypothesis of addiction , 2009, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[104]  M. Solanto Dopamine dysfunction in AD/HD: integrating clinical and basic neuroscience research , 2002, Behavioural Brain Research.

[105]  Brian K. Kobilka,et al.  Mutation of the α2A-Adrenoceptor Impairs Working Memory Performance and Annuls Cognitive Enhancement by Guanfacine , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[106]  M. Inzlicht,et al.  Running on Empty , 2007 .

[107]  Alcohol impairment of behavior in men and women. , 2004 .

[108]  Kenneth W Griffin,et al.  School-based programmes to prevent alcohol, tobacco and other drug use , 2007, International review of psychiatry.

[109]  Monique Ernst,et al.  Prefrontal cortical dysfunction in abstinent cocaine abusers. , 2004, The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences.

[110]  Lishman Wa Cerebral beriberi (Wernicke's encephalopathy). , 1998 .

[111]  Wallace Cj The effects of delayed rewards, social pressure, and frustration on the responses of opiate addicts. , 1979 .

[112]  K I Bolla,et al.  Cerebral Cortex Advance Access published May 13, 2004 Sex-related Differences in a Gambling Task and Its Neurological Correlates , 2022 .

[113]  R. Baumeister,et al.  Self-control as limited resource: regulatory depletion patterns. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[114]  C. Winstanley The Orbitofrontal Cortex, Impulsivity, and Addiction , 2007, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[115]  P. Goldman-Rakic,et al.  Prefrontal connections of medial motor areas in the rhesus monkey , 1993, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[116]  P. Fletcher,et al.  Opposing effects of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor antagonists in the rat and mouse on premature responding in the five-choice serial reaction time test , 2007, Psychopharmacology.

[117]  P. Fletcher,et al.  The 5-HT2A receptor antagonist M100,907 attenuates motor and 'impulsive-type' behaviours produced by NMDA receptor antagonism , 2003, Psychopharmacology.

[118]  E. Neafsey,et al.  The effect of medial frontal cortex lesions on respiration, "freezing," and ultrasonic vocalizations during conditioned emotional responses in rats. , 1991, Cerebral cortex.

[119]  K. Beck,et al.  Chronic stress effects on memory: sex differences in performance and monoaminergic activity , 2003, Hormones and Behavior.

[120]  M. Wilson,et al.  The organization of serotonergic projections to cerebral cortex in primates: Retrograde transport studies , 1991, Neuroscience.

[121]  H. de Wit,et al.  Dual determinants of drug use in humans: reward and impulsivity. , 2004, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation.

[122]  M. J. Christie,et al.  Excitatory amino acid projections to the nucleus accumbens septi in the rat: A retrograde transport study utilizingd[3H]aspartate and [3H]GABA , 1987, Neuroscience.

[123]  P. Conrod,et al.  Efficacy of Cognitive–Behavioral Interventions Targeting Personality Risk Factors for Youth Alcohol Misuse , 2006, Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53.

[124]  A. Damasio,et al.  Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. , 2000, Cerebral cortex.

[125]  R. Baumeister,et al.  Self-Regulation Failure: An Overview , 1996 .

[126]  F. Vocci Cognitive remediation in the treatment of stimulant abuse disorders: a research agenda. , 2008, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[127]  Howard E. Sypher,et al.  Persuasive Communication and Drug Abuse Prevention , 1991 .

[128]  M. Bardo,et al.  Psychobiology of novelty seeking and drug seeking behavior , 1996, Behavioural Brain Research.

[129]  P. Kalivas,et al.  The Circuitry Mediating Cocaine-Induced Reinstatement of Drug-Seeking Behavior , 2001, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[130]  H. Tanila,et al.  The effects of prefrontal intracortical microinjections of an alpha-2 agonist, alpha-2 antagonist and lidocaine on the delayed alternation performance of aged rats , 1996, Brain Research Bulletin.

[131]  D. M. Lyons,et al.  Experience-dependent asymmetric variation in primate prefrontal morphology , 2002, Behavioural Brain Research.

[132]  M. Ruf,et al.  Correlation of glutamate levels in the anterior cingulate cortex with self-reported impulsivity in patients with borderline personality disorder and healthy controls. , 2010, Archives of general psychiatry.

[133]  M. Zuckerman Behavioral Expressions and Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking , 1994 .

[134]  Barry J Richmond,et al.  Dynamic changes in representations of preceding and upcoming reward in monkey orbitofrontal cortex. , 2008, Cerebral cortex.

[135]  Trevor W. Robbins,et al.  Differential effects of modafinil and methylphenidate on stop-signal reaction time task performance in the rat, and interactions with the dopamine receptor antagonist cis-flupenthixol , 2007, Psychopharmacology.

[136]  Alan C. Evans,et al.  Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and clinical outcome in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. , 2006, Archives of general psychiatry.

[137]  H. Bönisch,et al.  The norepinephrine transporter in physiology and disease. , 2006, Handbook of experimental pharmacology.

[138]  F. Benes,et al.  Amygdalo‐cortical sprouting continues into early adulthood: Implications for the development of normal and abnormal function during adolescence , 2002, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[139]  L. Donohew,et al.  Applications of a theoretic model of information exposure to health interventions. , 1998, Human communication research.

[140]  Jane E. Joseph,et al.  Brain responses to repeated visual experience among low and high sensation seekers: Role of boredom susceptibility , 2009, Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging.

[141]  Peter Olausson,et al.  Impairments of Reversal Learning and Response Perseveration after Repeated, Intermittent Cocaine Administrations to Monkeys , 2002, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[142]  T. Robbins,et al.  Inhibitory control in rats performing a stop-signal reaction-time task: effects of lesions of the medial striatum and d-amphetamine. , 2003, Behavioral neuroscience.

[143]  Charles H Hillman,et al.  The relation of aerobic fitness to stroop task performance in preadolescent children. , 2008, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[144]  K. Tipton,et al.  Interactions of monoamine oxidase with substrates and inhibitors , 1989, Medicinal research reviews.

[145]  T. Robbins,et al.  Impulsive Choice Induced in Rats by Lesions of the Nucleus Accumbens Core , 2001, Science.

[146]  M. Koch,et al.  Effects of acute intra-cerebral administration of the 5-HT2A/C receptor ligands DOI and ketanserin on impulse control in rats , 2009, Behavioural Brain Research.

[147]  Karen I. Bolla,et al.  Neural substrates of faulty decision-making in abstinent marijuana users , 2005, NeuroImage.

[148]  R. Depue,et al.  Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion , 1999, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[149]  V. Brown,et al.  Rodent models of prefrontal cortical function , 2002, Trends in Neurosciences.

[150]  D. Schoepp Unveiling the functions of presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors in the central nervous system. , 2001, The Journal of pharmacology and experimental therapeutics.

[151]  G. Koob,et al.  Methamphetamine Self-Administration and Voluntary Exercise Have Opposing Effects on Medial Prefrontal Cortex Gliogenesis , 2007, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[152]  J. Evenden,et al.  The pharmacology of impulsive behaviour in rats: the effects of drugs on response choice with varying delays of reinforcement , 1996, Psychopharmacology.

[153]  M. Weinand,et al.  Affective self-report during the intracarotid sodium amobarbital test. , 1994, Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology.

[154]  B. Gähwiler,et al.  Effects of the GABA uptake inhibitor tiagabine on inhibitory synaptic potentials in rat hippocampal slice cultures. , 1992, Journal of neurophysiology.

[155]  D. Theobald,et al.  ΔFosB Induction in Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates Tolerance to Cocaine-Induced Cognitive Dysfunction , 2007, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[156]  T. Robbins,et al.  Prefrontal executive and cognitive functions in rodents: neural and neurochemical substrates , 2004, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[157]  M. Gunnar,et al.  Preventive intervention for maltreated preschool children: impact on children's behavior, neuroendocrine activity, and foster parent functioning. , 2000, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[158]  E. Rolls,et al.  The functional neuroanatomy of the human orbitofrontal cortex: evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychology , 2004, Progress in Neurobiology.

[159]  P. Jäkälä,et al.  Differential effects of three 5-HT receptor antagonists on the performance of rats in attentional and working memory tasks , 1997, European Neuropsychopharmacology.

[160]  S. Apparsundaram,et al.  Environmental enrichment decreases cell surface expression of the dopamine transporter in rat medial prefrontal cortex , 2005, Journal of neurochemistry.

[161]  T. Robbins,et al.  Defining the Neural Mechanisms of Probabilistic Reversal Learning Using Event-Related Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[162]  M. Carroll,et al.  Impulsive choice as a predictor of acquisition of IV cocaine self- administration and reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in male and female rats. , 2008, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[163]  P. Goldman-Rakic,et al.  The alpha-2 adrenergic agonist guanfacine improves memory in aged monkeys without sedative or hypotensive side effects: evidence for alpha-2 receptor subtypes , 1988, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[164]  S. Killcross,et al.  Coordination of actions and habits in the medial prefrontal cortex of rats. , 2003, Cerebral cortex.

[165]  R. Knight,et al.  γ-Aminobutyric acid-induced potentiation of cortical hemiplegia , 1986, Brain Research.

[166]  W. Carlezon,et al.  Sensitivity of the Five-Choice Serial Reaction Time Task to the Effects of Various Psychotropic Drugs in Sprague-Dawley Rats , 2007, Biological Psychiatry.

[167]  M. Fillmore,et al.  Triazolam impairs inhibitory control of behavior in humans. , 2001, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[168]  T. Robbins,et al.  Contrasting Roles of Basolateral Amygdala and Orbitofrontal Cortex in Impulsive Choice , 2004, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[169]  J. Price,et al.  The organization of the thalamocortical connections of the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus in the rat, related to the ventral forebrain–prefrontal cortex topography , 1992, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[170]  Philip David Zelazo,et al.  Development of “hot” executive function: The children’s gambling task , 2004, Brain and Cognition.

[171]  M. Zuckerman Sensation Seeking : Beyond the Optimal Level of Arousal , 1979 .

[172]  L. Vanderschuren,et al.  Critical Involvement of Dopaminergic Neurotransmission in Impulsive Decision Making , 2006, Biological Psychiatry.

[173]  R. A. Fuchs,et al.  Involvement of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex in drug context‐induced reinstatement of cocaine‐seeking behavior in rats , 2009, The European journal of neuroscience.

[174]  J. Richards,et al.  Acute-alcohol effects on the Experiential Discounting Task (EDT) and a question-based measure of delay discounting , 2006, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[175]  C. Gipson,et al.  Extended access to amphetamine self-administration increases impulsive choice in a delay discounting task in rats , 2009, Psychopharmacology.

[176]  M. Ernst,et al.  Neural substrates of decision making in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. , 2003, The American journal of psychiatry.

[177]  Y. P. Liu,et al.  Effects of acute and chronic buspirone on impulsive choice and efflux of 5-HT and dopamine in hippocampus, nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex , 2004, Psychopharmacology.

[178]  Alan C. Evans,et al.  Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study , 1999, Nature Neuroscience.

[179]  M. Jackson,et al.  Orbitofrontal and Anterior Cingulate Cortex Neurons Selectively Process Cocaine-Associated Environmental Cues in the Rhesus Monkey , 2009, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[180]  Stan B. Floresco,et al.  Contributions of the orbitofrontal cortex to impulsive choice: interactions with basal levels of impulsivity, dopamine signalling, and reward-related cues , 2010, Psychopharmacology.

[181]  Trevor W Robbins,et al.  Interactions between Serotonin and Dopamine in the Control of Impulsive Choice in Rats: Therapeutic Implications for Impulse Control Disorders , 2005, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[182]  P. Fletcher,et al.  Intra-median raphe nucleus (MRN) infusions of muscimol, a GABA-A receptor agonist, reinstate alcohol seeking in rats: role of impulsivity and reward , 2007, Psychopharmacology.

[183]  Jeffrey S. Maxwell,et al.  Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortical Activity and Behavioral Inhibition , 2009, Psychological science.

[184]  E. Yang,et al.  Neuroimaging, genetics and the treatment of nicotine addiction , 2008, Behavioural Brain Research.

[185]  P. Dash,et al.  Intra-medial prefrontal administration of SCH-23390 attenuates ERK phosphorylation and long-term memory for trace fear conditioning in rats , 2004, Neurobiology of Learning and Memory.

[186]  L. Vanderschuren,et al.  The neuropharmacology of impulsive behaviour. , 2008, Trends in pharmacological sciences.

[187]  A. Nairn,et al.  Orbitofrontal Cortex and Cognitive‐Motivational Impairments in Psychostimulant Addiction , 2007, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[188]  T. Robbins,et al.  Methylphenidate-induced impulsivity: pharmacological antagonism by β-adrenoreceptor blockade , 2010, Journal of psychopharmacology.

[189]  P. Goldman-Rakic,et al.  Differential Postnatal Development of Catecholamine and Serotonin Inputs to Identified Neurons in Prefrontal Cortex of Rhesus Monkey , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[190]  Joseph A Maldjian,et al.  Decreased gray matter concentration in the insular, orbitofrontal, cingulate, and temporal cortices of cocaine patients , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[191]  M. Fillmore,et al.  Acute effects of alcohol on inhibitory control and information processing in high and low sensation-seekers. , 2009, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[192]  K. Kirby,et al.  Delay-discounting probabilistic rewards: Rates decrease as amounts increase , 1996, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[193]  D. Oren,et al.  Treatment effects of selegiline transdermal system on symptoms of major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of short-term, placebo-controlled, efficacy trials. , 2007, Psychopharmacology bulletin.

[194]  K. Berridge,et al.  The Neuroscience of Natural Rewards: Relevance to Addictive Drugs , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[195]  C. Balducci,et al.  The Serotonin 5-HT2A Receptors Antagonist M100907 Prevents Impairment in Attentional Performance by NMDA Receptor Blockade in the Rat Prefrontal Cortex , 2004, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[196]  E. Miller,et al.  An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. , 2001, Annual review of neuroscience.

[197]  K. R. Ridderinkhof,et al.  Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: The role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning , 2004, Brain and Cognition.

[198]  S. Dawe,et al.  The role of impulsivity in the development of substance use and eating disorders , 2004, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[199]  P. Rakić,et al.  Changes in synaptic density in motor cortex of rhesus monkey during fetal and postnatal life. , 1989, Brain research. Developmental brain research.

[200]  R. A. Sewell,et al.  REVIEW: Norepinephrine and stimulant addiction , 2009, Addiction biology.

[201]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  One session of high frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to the right prefrontal cortex transiently reduces cocaine craving. , 2007, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[202]  B. Rounsaville,et al.  A Sibling Study of Sensation Seeking and Opiate Addiction , 1994, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[203]  J. Pin,et al.  Pharmacology and functions of metabotropic glutamate receptors. , 1997, Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology.

[204]  P. Andreason,et al.  Gender-related differences in regional cerebral glucose metabolism in normal volunteers , 1994, Psychiatry Research.

[205]  J. Dallery,et al.  Effects of acute and chronic nicotine on impulsive choice in rats , 2005, Behavioural pharmacology.

[206]  Eileen Luders,et al.  Gender differences in cortical complexity , 2004, Nature Neuroscience.

[207]  J. Price,et al.  The cortical projections of the mediodorsal nucleus and adjacent thalamic nuclei in the rat , 1977, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[208]  C. Moore,et al.  Complex decision-making in early childhood , 2004, Brain and Cognition.

[209]  E. Crone,et al.  Child Neuropsychology: A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence , 2005 .

[210]  B. Everitt,et al.  Induction of the learning and plasticity‐associated gene Zif268 following exposure to a discrete cocaine‐associated stimulus , 2003, The European journal of neuroscience.

[211]  Kosha Ruparel,et al.  Reduced prefrontal and temporal processing and recall of high “sensation value” ads , 2009, NeuroImage.

[212]  F. Fonnum,et al.  Glutamate in cortical fibers. , 1981, Advances in biochemical psychopharmacology.

[213]  L. Magazanik,et al.  Origin and Molecular Evolution of Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors , 2009, Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology.

[214]  Trevor W Robbins,et al.  The Orbital Prefrontal Cortex and Drug Addiction in Laboratory Animals and Humans , 2007, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[215]  H. Groenewegen Organization of the afferent connections of the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus in the rat, related to the mediodorsal-prefrontal topography , 1988, Neuroscience.

[216]  K. Cosgrove,et al.  Wheel-running attenuates intravenous cocaine self-administration in rats Sex differences , 2002, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[217]  Roberto Keller,et al.  Frontal lobe dysfunction in pathological gambling patients , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[218]  A. Basbaum,et al.  Immunohistochemical localization of GABAB receptors in the rat central nervous system , 1999, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[219]  Gregory G. Brown,et al.  Error Rate and Outcome Predictability Affect Neural Activation in Prefrontal Cortex and Anterior Cingulate during Decision-Making , 2002, NeuroImage.

[220]  J. Muir,et al.  Visual attention in the rat: a role for the prelimbic cortex and thalamic nuclei? , 2001, Behavioral neuroscience.

[221]  W. Danysz,et al.  Effects of mGlu1 receptor blockade on working memory, time estimation, and impulsivity in rats , 2008, Psychopharmacology.

[222]  P. Jäkälä,et al.  Clonidine, but not Guanfacine, Impairs Choice Reaction Time Performance in Young Healthy Volunteers , 1999, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[223]  Yiyuan Tang,et al.  The anterior cingulate gyrus and the mechanism of self-regulation , 2007, Cognitive, affective & behavioral neuroscience.

[224]  Hugh Garavan,et al.  Acute effects of cocaine on the neurobiology of cognitive control , 2008, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[225]  W. Schultz,et al.  Modifications of reward expectation-related neuronal activity during learning in primate orbitofrontal cortex. , 2000, Journal of neurophysiology.

[226]  J. Price,et al.  The organization of networks within the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex of rats, monkeys and humans. , 2000, Cerebral cortex.

[227]  T. Kelly,et al.  The reinforcing, subject-rated, performance, and cardiovascular effects of d-amphetamine: influence of sensation-seeking status. , 2007, Addictive behaviors.

[228]  L. Hays,et al.  Safety, tolerability and subject-rated effects of acute intranasal cocaine administration during atomoxetine maintenance. , 2008, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[229]  G. Heyman,et al.  Delay discounting in college cigarette chippers , 2006, Behavioural pharmacology.

[230]  W. Overman,et al.  Sex differences in early childhood, adolescence, and adulthood on cognitive tasks that rely on orbital prefrontal cortex , 2004, Brain and Cognition.

[231]  V. Luine,et al.  Sex-dependent changes in anxiety, memory, and monoamines following one week of stress , 2009, Physiology & Behavior.

[232]  T. Robbins,et al.  Dissociable Contributions of the Orbitofrontal and Infralimbic Cortex to Pavlovian Autoshaping and Discrimination Reversal Learning: Further Evidence for the Functional Heterogeneity of the Rodent Frontal Cortex , 2003, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[233]  M. Fillmore Drug abuse as a problem of impaired control: current approaches and findings. , 2003, Behavioral and cognitive neuroscience reviews.

[234]  S. Whiteside,et al.  Understanding the role of impulsivity and externalizing psychopathology in alcohol abuse: application of the UPPS impulsive behavior scale. , 2003, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[235]  M. Ernst,et al.  Neural substrates of choice selection in adults and adolescents: Development of the ventrolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices , 2007, Neuropsychologia.

[236]  P. Gisquet-Verrier,et al.  Involvement of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex in temporal behavioral sequencing: subregional analysis of the medial prefrontal cortex in rat , 2001, Behavioural Brain Research.

[237]  S. Rauch,et al.  Anterior cingulate cortex dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder revealed by fMRI and the counting stroop , 1999, Biological Psychiatry.

[238]  E. Procyk,et al.  Reward encoding in the monkey anterior cingulate cortex. , 2006, Cerebral cortex.

[239]  H. Damasio,et al.  Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions. , 2000, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[240]  C. Davies,et al.  GABAB Receptors: From Monogamy to Promiscuity , 2002, Neurosignals.

[241]  B. Gold,et al.  Functional Dissociation in Frontal and Striatal Areas for Processing of Positive and Negative Reward Information , 2007, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[242]  Y. Shaham,et al.  The reinstatement model of drug relapse: history, methodology and major findings , 2003, Psychopharmacology.

[243]  Antoine Bechara,et al.  The hidden island of addiction: the insula , 2009, Trends in Neurosciences.

[244]  V L Villemagne,et al.  Activation of memory circuits during cue-elicited cocaine craving. , 1996, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[245]  Joseph E. LeDoux,et al.  Extinction of emotional learning: Contribution of medial prefrontal cortex , 1993, Neuroscience Letters.

[246]  Gregory J. Madden,et al.  Impulsivity (delay discounting) as a predictor of acquisition of IV cocaine self-administration in female rats , 2005, Psychopharmacology.

[247]  K. Braun,et al.  Refinement of dendritic and synaptic networks in the rodent anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortex: Critical impact of early and late social experience , 2008, Developmental neurobiology.

[248]  B. Balleine,et al.  Goal-directed instrumental action: contingency and incentive learning and their cortical substrates , 1998, Neuropharmacology.

[249]  Daniel Tranel,et al.  Asymmetric Functional Roles of Right and Left Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortices in Social Conduct, Decision-Making, and Emotional Processing , 2002, Cortex.

[250]  Joshua W. Brown,et al.  Performance Monitoring by the Anterior Cingulate Cortex During Saccade Countermanding , 2003, Science.

[251]  H. Garavan,et al.  Dissociable Executive Functions in the Dynamic Control of Behavior: Inhibition, Error Detection, and Correction , 2002, NeuroImage.

[252]  J S Fowler,et al.  Regional brain metabolic activation during craving elicited by recall of previous drug experiences. , 1999, Life sciences.

[253]  Yogita Chudasama,et al.  Intra-prefrontal 8-OH-DPAT and M100907 improve visuospatial attention and decrease impulsivity on the five-choice serial reaction time task in rats , 2003, Psychopharmacology.

[254]  R Bandler,et al.  Orbitomedial prefrontal cortical projections to hypothalamus in the rat , 2001, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[255]  Julie A. Markham,et al.  Neuron number decreases in the rat ventral, but not dorsal, medial prefrontal cortex between adolescence and adulthood , 2007, Neuroscience.

[256]  G. Quirk,et al.  The Role of Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex in the Recovery of Extinguished Fear , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[257]  S. Blakemore The social brain in adolescence , 2008, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[258]  A. Young,et al.  Evidence for glutamate as the neurotransmitter of corticothalamic and corticorubral pathways , 1981, Brain Research.

[259]  JaneR . Taylor,et al.  Impulsivity, Compulsivity, and Habit: The Role of Orbitofrontal Cortex Revisited , 2008, Biological Psychiatry.

[260]  H. Groenewegen,et al.  The anatomical relationships of the prefrontal cortex with limbic structures and the basal ganglia , 1997, Journal of psychopharmacology.

[261]  G. Glover,et al.  Earlier Development of the Accumbens Relative to Orbitofrontal Cortex Might Underlie Risk-Taking Behavior in Adolescents , 2006, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[262]  V. Denenberg,et al.  CRITICAL PERIODS, STIMULUS INPUT, AND EMOTIONAL REACTIVITY: A THEORY OF INFANTILE STIMULATION. , 1964, Psychological review.

[263]  Kelvin O. Lim,et al.  White Matter Integrity Predicts Delay Discounting Behavior in 9- to 23-Year-Olds: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study , 2009, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[264]  J. Sirviö,et al.  Activation of 5-HT2A receptors impairs response control of rats in a five-choice serial reaction time task , 2000, Neuropharmacology.

[265]  Mark S. Cohen,et al.  Neural Substrates of Resisting Craving During Cigarette Cue Exposure , 2007, Biological Psychiatry.

[266]  Karen I. Bolla,et al.  Abnormal brain activity in prefrontal brain regions in abstinent marijuana users , 2004, NeuroImage.

[267]  M. Thiébot,et al.  Effects of psychotropic drugs on rat responding in an operant paradigm involving choice between delayed reinforcers , 1996, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[268]  JaneR . Taylor,et al.  Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug abuse: implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli , 1999, Psychopharmacology.

[269]  W. Hauber,et al.  Dopamine D1 receptors in the anterior cingulate cortex regulate effort-based decision making. , 2006, Learning & memory.

[270]  T. Wills,et al.  Temperament and novelty seeking in adolescent substance use: convergence of dimensions of temperament with constructs from Cloninger's theory. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[271]  D. Theobald,et al.  ΔFosB induction in orbitofrontal cortex potentiates locomotor sensitization despite attenuating the cognitive dysfunction caused by cocaine , 2009, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[272]  B. Cragg,et al.  Plasticity of synapses. , 1974, British medical bulletin.

[273]  M. Bardo,et al.  Environmental enrichment decreases intravenous self-administration of amphetamine in female and male rats , 2001, Psychopharmacology.

[274]  N. Volkow,et al.  Drug addiction: the neurobiology of disrupted self-control. , 2006, Trends in molecular medicine.

[275]  H. de Wit,et al.  Effects of methamphetamine on the adjusting amount procedure, a model of impulsive behavior in rats , 1999, Psychopharmacology.

[276]  T. Robbins,et al.  Double dissociation between serotonergic and dopaminergic modulation of medial prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex during a test of impulsive choice. , 2006, Cerebral cortex.

[277]  N. Volkow,et al.  What is in a word? No versus Yes differentially engage the lateral orbitofrontal cortex. , 2007, Emotion.

[278]  T. Robbins,et al.  Global 5-HT depletion attenuates the ability of amphetamine to decrease impulsive choice on a delay-discounting task in rats , 2003, Psychopharmacology.

[279]  D. Fishbein The Importance of Neurobiological Research to the Prevention of Psychopathology , 2000, Prevention Science.

[280]  R. Roth,et al.  Clozapine Reverses the Spatial Working Memory Deficits Induced by FG7142 in Monkeys , 1997, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[281]  Matthew F S Rushworth,et al.  Functional Specialization within Medial Frontal Cortex of the Anterior Cingulate for Evaluating Effort-Related Decisions , 2003, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[282]  M. Gunnar,et al.  Bringing basic research on early experience and stress neurobiology to bear on preventive interventions for neglected and maltreated children. , 2006, Development and psychopathology.

[283]  Philip David Zelazo,et al.  Neural correlates of cognitive control in childhood and adolescence: Disentangling the contributions of age and executive function , 2006, Neuropsychologia.

[284]  Frank Schneider,et al.  Real-time fMRI of temporolimbic regions detects amygdala activation during single-trial self-induced sadness , 2003, NeuroImage.

[285]  J. Peters,et al.  Animal models and brain circuits in drug addiction. , 2006, Molecular interventions.

[286]  Brent L. Hughes,et al.  Prefrontal-Subcortical Pathways Mediating Successful Emotion Regulation , 2008, Neuron.

[287]  A. Arnsten,et al.  The Emerging Neurobiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The Key Role of the Prefrontal Association Cortex. , 2009, The Journal of pediatrics.

[288]  F. Dellu-Hagedorn,et al.  Dimensional Analysis of ADHD Subtypes in Rats , 2007, Biological Psychiatry.

[289]  S. Floresco,et al.  Dopaminergic regulation of limbic-striatal interplay. , 2007, Journal of psychiatry & neuroscience : JPN.

[290]  T. Robbins,et al.  Decision-making processes following damage to the prefrontal cortex. , 2002, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[291]  R. Archer,et al.  The relationship of MMPI and Sensation Seeking Scales to adolescent drug use. , 1989, Journal of personality assessment.

[292]  M. J. Renner,et al.  The golden-mantled ground squirrel (Spermophilus lateralis) as a model for the effects of environmental enrichment in solitary animals. , 1987, Developmental psychobiology.

[293]  F. Castellanos,et al.  Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes , 2002, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[294]  Carlo Contoreggi,et al.  Drug abusers show impaired performance in a laboratory test of decision making , 2000, Neuropsychologia.

[295]  J. Muir,et al.  The cerebral cortex of the rat and visual attentional function: dissociable effects of mediofrontal, cingulate, anterior dorsolateral, and parietal cortex lesions on a five-choice serial reaction time task. , 1996, Cerebral cortex.

[296]  D. Collier,et al.  An examination of decision making in bulimia nervosa , 2009, Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology.

[297]  S. Floresco,et al.  Dopaminergic and Glutamatergic Regulation of Effort- and Delay-Based Decision Making , 2008, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[298]  E. Neafsey,et al.  The effect of medial frontal cortex lesions on cardiovascular conditioned emotional responses in the rat , 1994, Brain Research.

[299]  Jean-Lud Cadet,et al.  Frontal cortical tissue composition in abstinent cocaine abusers: a magnetic resonance imaging study , 2003, NeuroImage.

[300]  S. Killcross,et al.  Inactivation of the infralimbic prefrontal cortex reinstates goal-directed responding in overtrained rats , 2003, Behavioural Brain Research.

[301]  J. Salamone,et al.  Forebrain circuitry involved in effort-related choice: Injections of the GABAA agonist muscimol into ventral pallidum alter response allocation in food-seeking behavior , 2008, Neuroscience.

[302]  T. Wills,et al.  The Motivation, Skills, and Decision-Making Model of “Drug Abuse” Prevention , 2004, Substance use & misuse.

[303]  L. M. Lieving,et al.  Acute effects of alprazolam on risky decision making in humans , 2005, Psychopharmacology.

[304]  Kent A. Kiehl,et al.  Orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in abstinent cocaine abusers performing a decision-making task , 2003, NeuroImage.

[305]  Thomas F. Nugent,et al.  Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[306]  R. Vertes Differential projections of the infralimbic and prelimbic cortex in the rat , 2004, Synapse.

[307]  JaneR . Taylor,et al.  Insight into the relationship between impulsivity and substance abuse from studies using animal models. , 2010, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[308]  C. Nederkoorn,et al.  Why obese children cannot resist food: the role of impulsivity. , 2006, Eating behaviors.

[309]  Alan C. Evans,et al.  Structural maturation of neural pathways in children and adolescents: in vivo study. , 1999, Science.

[310]  Mark Slifstein,et al.  Brain serotonin transporter distribution in subjects with impulsive aggressivity: a positron emission study with [11C]McN 5652. , 2005, The American journal of psychiatry.

[311]  S. Kennerley,et al.  Reward-Dependent Modulation of Working Memory in Lateral Prefrontal Cortex , 2009, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[312]  Michael X. Cohen,et al.  Different neural systems adjust motor behavior in response to reward and punishment , 2007, NeuroImage.

[313]  T. Robbins,et al.  Behavioral models of impulsivity in relation to ADHD: Translation between clinical and preclinical studies , 2006, Clinical psychology review.

[314]  J. Fuster Prefrontal Cortex , 2018 .

[315]  N. Volkow,et al.  The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of motivation and choice. , 2005, The American journal of psychiatry.

[316]  B. Cragg,et al.  The development of synapses in the visual system of the cat , 1975, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[317]  A. Arnsten,et al.  The Selective Dopamine D4 Receptor Antagonist, PNU-101387G, Prevents Stress-Induced Cognitive Deficits in Monkeys , 2000, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[318]  T. Wills,et al.  Self-control constructs related to measures of dietary intake and physical activity in adolescents. , 2007, The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine.

[319]  M. Molliver,et al.  Immunohistochemical study of the development of serotonergic neurons in the rat CNS , 1982, Brain Research Bulletin.

[320]  R Bandler,et al.  Orbitomedial prefrontal cortical projections to distinct longitudinal columns of the periaqueductal gray in the rat , 2000, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[321]  Robert P. Vertes,et al.  Interactions among the medial prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and midline thalamus in emotional and cognitive processing in the rat , 2006, Neuroscience.

[322]  Marc D. Lewis,et al.  Emotion regulation in the brain: conceptual issues and directions for developmental research. , 2004, Child development.

[323]  M. Roesch,et al.  Orbitofrontal Cortex, Associative Learning, and Expectancies , 2005, Neuron.

[324]  R. Wise Drug-activation of brain reward pathways. , 1998, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[325]  Morten L Kringelbach,et al.  Methamphetamine Activates Reward Circuitry in Drug Naïve Human Subjects , 2004, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[326]  J. Price Definition of the Orbital Cortex in Relation to Specific Connections with Limbic and Visceral Structures and Other Cortical Regions , 2007, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[327]  J. O'Doherty,et al.  What We Know and Do Not Know about the Functions of the Orbitofrontal Cortex after 20 Years of Cross-Species Studies , 2007, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[328]  J. Sirviö,et al.  Changes in activities of dopamine and serotonin systems in the frontal cortex underlie poor choice accuracy and impulsivity of rats in an attention task , 1998, Neuroscience.

[329]  P. Goldman-Rakic,et al.  Noise stress impairs prefrontal cortical cognitive function in monkeys: evidence for a hyperdopaminergic mechanism. , 1998, Archives of general psychiatry.

[330]  JaneR . Taylor,et al.  Supranormal Stimulation of D1 Dopamine Receptors in the Rodent Prefrontal Cortex Impairs Spatial Working Memory Performance , 1997, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[331]  J. Monterosso,et al.  Deficits in response inhibition associated with chronic methamphetamine abuse. , 2005, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[332]  G. Quirk,et al.  Neuronal signalling of fear memory , 2004, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[333]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  Diminishing Risk-Taking Behavior by Modulating Activity in the Prefrontal Cortex: A Direct Current Stimulation Study , 2007, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[334]  S. Hyman,et al.  Acute Effects of Cocaine on Human Brain Activity and Emotion , 1997, Neuron.

[335]  A. Alavi,et al.  Sex differences in regional cerebral glucose metabolism during a resting state , 1995, Science.

[336]  K. Berridge,et al.  What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? , 1998, Brain Research Reviews.

[337]  M. Mishkin,et al.  Effects of orbital frontal and anterior cingulate lesions on object and spatial memory in rhesus monkeys , 1997, Neuropsychologia.

[338]  H. Groenewegen,et al.  The medial prefrontal cortex in the rat: evidence for a dorso-ventral distinction based upon functional and anatomical characteristics , 2003, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[339]  I. Berlin,et al.  Impulsivity in smoking, nonsmoking, and ex-smoking alcoholics. , 2004, Addictive behaviors.

[340]  L. Donohew,et al.  Effective Mass Media Strategies for Drug Abuse Prevention Campaigns , 2006 .

[341]  T. Robbins,et al.  Effects of medial prefrontal or anterior cingulate cortex lesions on responding for cocaine under fixed-ratio and second-order schedules of reinforcement in rats , 1997, Psychopharmacology.

[342]  T. Robbins,et al.  The frontal cortex of the rat and visual attentional performance: dissociable functions of distinct medial prefrontal subregions. , 2002, Cerebral cortex.

[343]  D. Pandya,et al.  Architecture and intrinsic connections of the prefrontal cortex in the rhesus monkey , 1989, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[344]  K. R. Ridderinkhof,et al.  The Role of the Medial Frontal Cortex in Cognitive Control , 2004, Science.

[345]  B. Mensour,et al.  Neural basis of emotional self-regulation in childhood , 2004, Neuroscience.

[346]  Lorena R. R. Gianotti,et al.  Disruption of Right Prefrontal Cortex by Low-Frequency Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Induces Risk-Taking Behavior , 2006, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[347]  A. Bechara Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: a neurocognitive perspective , 2005, Nature Neuroscience.

[348]  G. Schoenbaum,et al.  Neural Encoding in Orbitofrontal Cortex and Basolateral Amygdala during Olfactory Discrimination Learning , 1999, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[349]  E. Crone,et al.  A Developmental Study of Risky Decisions on the Cake Gambling Task: Age and Gender Analyses of Probability Estimation and Reward Evaluation , 2008, Developmental neuropsychology.

[350]  Joseph L. Price,et al.  Beyond the primary olfactory cortex: olfactory-related areas in the neocortex, thalamus and hypothalamus , 1985 .

[351]  G. Paxinos,et al.  The Rat Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates , 1983 .

[352]  J. Evenden,et al.  The pharmacology of impulsive behaviour in rats VI: the effects of ethanol and selective serotonergic drugs on response choice with varying delays of reinforcement , 1999, Psychopharmacology.

[353]  M. Wilson,et al.  The organization of serotonergic projections to cerebral cortex in primates: Regional distribution of axon terminals , 1991, Neuroscience.

[354]  J. Wallis Orbitofrontal cortex and its contribution to decision-making. , 2007, Annual review of neuroscience.

[355]  H. Kita,et al.  Amygdaloid projections to the frontal cortex and the striatum in the rat , 1990, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[356]  R. Kesner,et al.  Involvement of the Prelimbic–Infralimbic Areas of the Rodent Prefrontal Cortex in Behavioral Flexibility for Place and Response Learning , 1999, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[357]  Clay B. Holroyd,et al.  The neural basis of human error processing: reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity. , 2002, Psychological review.

[358]  T. Robbins,et al.  Dissociable aspects of performance on the 5-choice serial reaction time task following lesions of the dorsal anterior cingulate, infralimbic and orbitofrontal cortex in the rat: differential effects on selectivity, impulsivity and compulsivity , 2003, Behavioural Brain Research.

[359]  J. Peters,et al.  Opposing roles for the ventral prefrontal cortex and the basolateral amygdala on the spontaneous recovery of cocaine-seeking in rats , 2008, Psychopharmacology.

[360]  Harry B. M. Uylings,et al.  Cytoarchitectonic and chemoarchitectonic characterization of the prefrontal cortical areas in the mouse , 2010, Brain Structure and Function.

[361]  John D E Gabrieli,et al.  Control over brain activation and pain learned by using real-time functional MRI. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[362]  L. Donohew,et al.  Effects of the Office of National Drug Control Policy's Marijuana Initiative Campaign on high-sensation-seeking adolescents. , 2007, American journal of public health.

[363]  E. Murray,et al.  Bilateral Orbital Prefrontal Cortex Lesions in Rhesus Monkeys Disrupt Choices Guided by Both Reward Value and Reward Contingency , 2004, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[364]  B. Everitt,et al.  Limbic-cortical-ventral Striatal Activation during Retrieval of a Discrete Cocaine-associated Stimulus: a Cellular Imaging Study with ␥ Protein Kinase C Expression , 2022 .

[365]  T. Robbins,et al.  Opposing Roles for 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C Receptors in the Nucleus Accumbens on Inhibitory Response Control in the 5-Choice Serial Reaction Time Task , 2008, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[366]  B. Everitt,et al.  The Effects of Selective Orbitofrontal Cortex Lesions on the Acquisition and Performance of Cue‐Controlled Cocaine Seeking in Rats , 2003, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.