Representative roughness parameters for homogeneous terrain

Objective requirements are drawn up for experimental determination of the roughness of homogeneous terrain, particularly with respect to matching of the observation array to a terrain situation with given fetch, blending height and displacement length. Some fifty well-documented published experiments over various surfaces, ranging from mobile surfaces (sea, or moving sand or snow) to forests and towns, are shown to meet these criteria and are compiled. It is shown that most presently popular terrain reviews underestimate actual terrain roughness lengths by about a factor two.

[1]  P. A. Sheppard.  The aerodynamic drag of the earth’s surface and the value of von Karman’s constant in the lower atmosphere , 1947, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[2]  F. Pasquill.  The aerodynamic drag of grassland , 1950, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[3]  M. Jensen,et al.  Shelter effect: investigations into the aerodynamics of shelter and its effects on climate and crops , 1954 .

[4]  H. Charnock.  Wind stress on a water surface , 1955 .

[5]  A. Baumgartner.  Untersuchungen über den Wärme- und Wasserhaushalt eines jungen Waldes , 1956 .

[6]  W. Elliott,et al.  The growth of the atmospheric internal boundary layer , 1958 .

[7]  C. Priestley.  Estimation of surface stress and heat flux from profile data , 1959 .

[8]  C. B. Tanner,et al.  Potential evapotranspiration estimates by the approximate energy balance method of Penman , 1960 .

[9]  Alan G. Davenport,et al.  Rationale for Determining Design Wind Velocities , 1960 .

[10]  F. A. Brooks.  NEED FOR MEASURING HORIZONTAL GRADIENTS IN DETERMINING VERTICAL EDDY TRANSFERS OF HEAT AND MOISTURE , 1961 .

[11]  M. Shiotani.  The Relationship between wind Profiles and Stabilities of the Air Layer in the Outskirts of the City , 1962 .

[12]  E. F. Bradley,et al.  Horizontal transport of heat and moisture — a micrometeorological study , 1963 .

[13]  I. F. Long,et al.  The plant and its environment , 1964 .

[14]  P. R. Owen,et al.  Saltation of uniform grains in air , 1964, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[15]  John L. Lumley,et al.  The structure of atmospheric turbulence , 1964 .

[16]  On Roughness Length and Zero-Plane Displacement in the Wind Profile of the Lowest Air Layer , 1966 .

[17]  Determination of the Effect of Roughness Change on the Wind Profile , 1967 .

[18]  L. Olsson,et al.  accuracy of wind measurements on towers or stacks1,2 , 1967 .

[19]  E. F. Bradley.  A micrometeorological study of velocity profiles and surface drag in the region modified by a change in surface roughness , 1968 .

[20]  W. Baier,et al.  The performance of soil moisture estimates as compared with the direct use of climatological data for estimating crop yields , 1968 .

[21]  H. Tennekes,et al.  Asymptotic Similarity in Neutral Barotropic Planetary Boundary Layers , 1968 .

[22]  H. Lettau.  Note on Aerodynamic Roughness-Parameter Estimation on the Basis of Roughness-Element Description , 1969 .

[23]  G. Szeicz,et al.  Aerodynamic and surface factors in evaporation , 1969 .

[24]  E. Peterson,et al.  On the Relation between the Shear Stress and the Velocity Profile after a Change in Surface Roughness , 1969 .

[25]  E. W. Peterson,et al.  Modification of mean flow and turbulent energy by a change in surface roughness under conditions of neutral stability , 1969 .

[26]  S. D. Smith,et al.  Wind stress and turbulence over ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence , 1970 .

[27]  C. Stearns.  Determining surface roughness and displacement height , 1970 .

[28]  A. Thom.  Momentum absorption by vegetation , 1971 .

[29]  J. Counehan,et al.  Wind tunnel determination of the roughness length as a function of the fetch and the roughness density of three-dimensional roughness elements , 1971 .

[30]  J. Kondo.  Relationship Between the Roughness Coefficient and Other Aerodynamic Parameters , 1971 .

[31]  G. S. Raynor.  Wind and Temperature Structure in a Coniferous Forest and a Contiguous Field , 1971 .

[32]  E. F. Bradley.  The influence of thermal stability of a drag coefficient measured close to the ground , 1971 .

[33]  H. Oliver.  Wind profiles in and above a forest canopy , 1971 .

[34]  C. Stearns.  The effect of time-variable fluxes on mean wind and temperature profile structure , 1971 .

[35]  E. Peterson.  Predictions of the Momentum Exchange Coefficient for Flow over Heterogeneous Terrain , 1971 .

[36]  Julian C. R. Hunt,et al.  The effect of single buildings and structures , 1971, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[37]  J. K Marshall,et al.  Drag measurements in roughness arrays of varying density and distribution , 1971 .

[38]  F. Pasquill,et al.  Some aspects of boundary layer description , 1972 .

[39]  Hans A. Panofsky,et al.  The geostrophic drag coefficient and the ‘effective’ roughness length , 1972 .

[40]  William H. Snyder,et al.  Similarity criteria for the application of fluid models to the study of air pollution meteorology , 1972 .

[41]  C. Shir.  A Numerical Computation of Air Flow over a Sudden Change of Surface Roughness , 1972 .

[42]  S. Nemoto.  Some Considerations on the Atmospheric Internal Boundary Layer over the Ground Surface , 1972 .

[43]  J. Wieringa.  Tilt errors and precipitation effects in trivane measurements of turbulent fluxes over open water , 1972 .

[44]  M. P. Langleben.  A study of the roughness parameters of sea ice from wind profiles , 1972 .

[45]  R. R. Brook.  The Measurement of Turbulence in a City Environment , 1972 .

[46]  G. McBean.  Instrument Requirements for Eddy Correlation Measurements , 1972 .

[47]  J. Robertson,et al.  Spatial and Temporal Variation of Wind Above and Within a Soybean Canopy , 1972 .

[48]  Stuart D. Smith.  Wind stress and turbulence over a flat ice floe , 1972 .

[49]  D. S. Munro,et al.  Estimating wind profile parameters for tall dense crops , 1973 .

[50]  E. F. Bradley,et al.  Drag due to regular arrays of roughness elements of varying geometry , 1973 .

[51]  J. Wieringa,et al.  Gust factors over open water and built-up country , 1973 .

[52]  Estimated and Measured Roughness Parameters for a Pine Forest , 1973 .

[53]  H. Tennekes,et al.  The Logarithmic Wind Profile , 1973 .

[54]  B. Séguin.  Rugosite du paysage et evapotranspiration potentielle a l'echelle regionale , 1973 .

[55]  M. P. Langleben.  On wind profiles over sea ice , 1974 .

[56]  B. Hicks,et al.  Drag and bulk transfer coefficients associated with a shallow water surface , 1974 .

[57]  J. Wyngaard,et al.  The Structure of the Two-Dimensional Internal Boundary Layer over a Sudden Change of Surface Roughness , 1974 .

[58]  Shearing Stress Meter , 1974 .

[59]  I. Seginer.  Aerodynamic roughness of vegetated surfaces , 1974 .

[60]  Wilfried Brutsaert,et al.  Comments on Surface Roughness Parameters and the Height of Dense Vegetation , 1975 .

[61]  J. Garratt.  Limitations of the Eddy-correlation technique for the determination of turbulent fluxes near the surface , 1975 .

[62]  W. Brutsaert.  The Roughness Length for Water Vapor Sensible Heat, and Other Scalars. , 1975 .

[63]  D. S. Munro,et al.  Aerodynamic boundary-layer adjustment over a crop in neutral stability , 1975 .

[64]  S. Arya,et al.  A drag partition theory for determining the large-scale roughness parameter and wind stress on the Arctic pack ice , 1975 .

[65]  Atmospheric-stability effect on windbreak shelter and drag , 1975 .

[66]  J. Gash,et al.  Comparison of aerodynamic and energy budget estimates of fluxes over a pine forest , 1975 .

[67]  R. Angle.  Airflow from mustard to fallow , 1975 .

[68]  B. Hicks,et al.  Wind profile relationships from the ‘wangara’ experiment , 1976 .

[69]  N. A. Jackson.  The propagation of modified flow downstream of a change in roughness , 1976 .

[70]  H. Panofsky,et al.  Statistics of vertical motion over land and water , 1976 .

[71]  E. Peterson,et al.  Some observations and analysis of wind over non‐uniform terrain , 1976 .

[72]  J. Wieringa,et al.  An objective exposure correction method for average wind speeds measured at a sheltered location , 1976 .

[73]  Leif Kristensen,et al.  Cup Anemometer Overspeeding , 1976 .

[75]  A. Weiss,et al.  Vertical and horizontal air flow above rows of a vineyard , 1976 .

[76]  E. D. Ford,et al.  The canopy of a Scots pine forest: Description of a surface of complex roughness , 1976 .

[77]  J. Garratt.  Review of Drag Coefficients over Oceans and Continents , 1977 .

[78]  S. Arya.  Suggested Revisions to Certain Boundary Layer Parameterization Schemes Used in Atmospheric Circulation Models , 1977 .

[79]  H. Panofsky,et al.  WIND STRUCTURE IN STRONG WINDS BELOW 150 M , 1977 .

[80]  W. Wiseman,et al.  Correction: 'Temporal variation of surface roughness over a Tundra surface' , 1977 .

[81]  Jürgen Wucknitz,et al.  Disturbance of wind profile measurements by a slim mast , 1977 .

[82]  A study of the roughness effects of multiple windbreaks , 1977 .

[83]  Some thoughts on the specification of the boundary-layer relevant to numerical modelling , 1977 .

[84]  Forest and Airport Wind Speeds , 1978 .

[85]  J. Carroll,et al.  Aerodynamic roughness as a function of wind direction over asymmetric surface elements , 1978 .

[86]  R. Leuning,et al.  Mass, heat and momentum exchange between a mature eucalyptus forest and the atmosphere , 1978 .

[87]  J. Monteith,et al.  Boundary Layer Climates. , 1979 .

[88]  Emil Simiu,et al.  Mean Wind Profiles and Change of Terrain Roughness , 1978 .

[89]  B. Saugier,et al.  Evaluation of the aerodynamic method of determining fluxes over natural grassland , 1978 .

[90]  J. Garratt.  Flux profile relations above tall vegetation , 1978 .

[91]  Frans T. M. Nieuwstadt,et al.  The computation of the friction velocity u* and the temperature scale T* from temperature and wind velocity profiles by least-square methods , 1978 .

[92]  U. Högström,et al.  A Practical Method for Determining Wind Frequency Distributions for the Lowest 200 m from Routine Meteorological Data , 1978 .

[93]  Niels Otto Jensen,et al.  Change of surface roughness and the planetary boundary layer , 1978 .

[94]  E. Deacon.  The role of coral mucus in reducing the wind drag over coral reefs , 1979 .

[95]  J. Højstrup,et al.  Observations of downwind development of wind speed and variance profiles at Bognaes and comparison with theory , 1979 .

[96]  N. Thompson.  Turbulence measurements above a pine forest , 1979 .

[97]  E. Gorham,et al.  Shoot height, weight and standing crop in relation to density of monospecific plant stands , 1979, Nature.

[98]  B. E. Lee,et al.  A wind tunnel study of the mean pressure forces acting on large groups of low-rise buildings , 1980 .

[99]  T. Oke,et al.  Suburban Energy Balance Estimates for Vancouver, B.C., Using the Bowen Ratio-Energy Balance Approach , 1980 .

[100]  Michael R. Raupach,et al.  A wind-tunnel study of turbulent flow close to regularly arrayed rough surfaces , 1980 .

[101]  J. R. Garratt,et al.  Surface influence upon vertical profiles in the atmospheric near-surface layer , 1980 .

[102]  J. Wieringa,et al.  A revaluation of the Kansas mast influence on measurements of stress and cup anemometer overspeeding , 1980 .

[103]  EFFECT OF HIGH ROUGHNESS ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBULENCE IN CASES OF STRONG WINDS , 1980 .

[104]  Jin Wu,et al.  Wind-Stress coefficients over Sea surface near Neutral Conditions—A Revisit , 1980 .

[105]  J. Wieringa,et al.  Estimation of Mesoscale and Local-Scale Roughness for Atmospheric Transport Modeling , 1981 .

[106]  H. Vugts,et al.  Measurements of Drag Coefficients and Roughness Length at a Sea-Beach Interface , 1981 .

[107]  I. F. Long,et al.  Aerodynamic properties of field bean and potato crops , 1981 .

[108]  C. Sacre.  Strong wind structure near a sea-land roughness discontinuity , 1981 .

[109]  S. Tajchman.  Comments on Measuring Turbulent Exchange Within and Above Forest Canopy , 1981 .

[110]  B. Hicks,et al.  Heat and momentum transfer characteristics of adjacent fields of soybeans and maize , 1981 .

[111]  A. Thom,et al.  Turbulence in and above Plant Canopies , 1981 .

[112]  P. Jackson.  On the displacement height in the logarithmic velocity profile , 1981, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[113]  J. Kondo,et al.  The Determination of the von Karman Constant , 1982 .

[114]  A. Beljaars,et al.  The derivation of fluxes from profiles in perturbed areas , 1982 .

[115]  D. Steyn,et al.  Turbulence in an unstable surface layer over suburban terrain , 1982 .

[116]  Sylvain M. Joffre,et al.  Momentum and heat transfers in the surface layer over a frozen sea , 1982 .

[117]  J. Andreopoulos,et al.  The response of a turbulent boundary layer to a short length of surface roughness , 1982, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[118]  R. Shaw,et al.  Aerodynamic roughness of a plant canopy: A numerical experiment , 1982 .

[119]  R. A. Schmidt,et al.  Vertical profiles of wind speed, snow concentration, and humidity in blowing snow , 1982 .

[120]  J. Wieringa.  Description requirements for assessment of non-ideal wind stations — for example Aachen. , 1983 .

[121]  On wakes and the net forces produced by surface-mounted obstacles in neutrally stratified atmospheric boundary layers , 1983 .

[122]  S. Macklin.  Wind drag coefficient over first‐year sea ice in the Bering Sea , 1983 .

[123]  H. Dop.  Terrain classification and derived meteorological parameters for interregional transport models , 1983 .

[124]  A. C. Chamberlain.  Roughness length of sea, sand, and snow , 1983 .

[125]  D. Baldocchi,et al.  Characteristics of air flow above and within soybean canopies , 1983 .

[126]  J. Wallace,et al.  A comparison of methods for estimating aerodynamic resistance of heather (calluna vulgaris (L.) hull) in the field , 1984 .

[127]  H. Panofsky,et al.  Atmospheric Turbulence: Models and Methods for Engineering Applications , 1984 .

[128]  H. Tennekes,et al.  Similarity Relations, Scaling Laws and Spectral Dynamics , 1984 .

[129]  Albert A. M. Holtslag,et al.  Estimates of diabatic wind speed profiles from near-surface weather observations , 1984 .

[130]  Simplified calculation of the zero-plane displacement from wind-speed profiles , 1984 .

[131]  R. Pielke.  Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling , 1984 .

[132]  C. J. Moore,et al.  Zero-plane displacement and roughness length for tall vegetation, derived from a simple mass conservation hypothesis , 1985 .

[133]  J. Overland.  Atmospheric boundary layer structure and drag coefficients over sea ice , 1985 .

[134]  R. Goble,et al.  Roughness effects on urban turbulence parameters , 1986 .

[135]  S. Verma,et al.  Aerodynamic characteristics of grain sorghum , 1986 .

[136]  Stig Karlsson,et al.  The applicability of wind profile formulas to an urban-rural interface site , 1986 .

[137]  A. J. Dolman,et al.  Estimates of roughness length and zero plane displacement for a foliated and non-foliated oak canopy , 1986 .

[138]  J. Kondo,et al.  Bulk transfer coefficient over a snow surface , 1986 .

[139]  R. A. Schmidt,et al.  Transport rate of drifting snow and the mean wind speed profile , 1986 .

[140]  Dennis D. Baldocchi,et al.  Turbulence spectra of CO2, water vapor, temperature and velocity over a deciduous forest , 1986 .

[141]  Nicholas John Cook,et al.  The Designer's Guide To Wind Loading Of Building Structures , 1986 .

[142]  W. Kustas,et al.  Wind profile constants in a neutral atmospheric boundary layer over complex terrain , 1986 .

[143]  J. Wieringa.  Roughness‐dependent geographical interpolation of surface wind speed averages , 1986 .

[144]  J. Gash,et al.  Observations of turbulence downwind of a forest-heath interface , 1986 .

[145]  C. Valancogne,et al.  Variation de la vitesse du vent a l'interieur et au-dessus d'une vigne , 1987 .

[146]  Peter A. Taylor,et al.  Comments and further analysis on effective roughness lengths for use in numerical three-dimensional models , 1987 .

[147]  Zur aerodynamischen Rauhigkeit arktischer Meereusflä , 1987 .

[148]  A. C. M. Beljaars.  On the memory of wind standard deviation for upstream roughness , 1987 .

[149]  Variability of turbulent momentum fluxes over a tideland ― a case study , 1987 .

[150]  J. Walmsley.  On theoretical wind speed and temperature profiles over the sea with applications to data from sable island, Nova Scotia , 1988 .

[151]  Niels Gylling Mortensen,et al.  WAsP. Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Programme. User's Guide. Release 1.00 and Release 2.00 , 1988 .

[152]  Adrie F. G. Jacobs,et al.  Changes of the displacement height and roughness length of maize during a growing season , 1988 .

[153]  R. Shaw,et al.  Influence of foliar density and thermal stability on profiles of Reynolds stress and turbulence intensity in a deciduous forest , 1988 .

[154]  R. Stull.  An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology , 1988 .

[155]  P. J. Mason,et al.  The formation of areally‐averaged roughness lengths , 1988 .

[156]  R. Pinker,et al.  Turbulence structure of a tropical forest , 1988 .

[157]  H. Bergström,et al.  Turbulent exchange above a pine forest II. Organized structures , 1989 .

[158]  Marc B. Parlange,et al.  Regional roughness of the landes forest and surface shear stress under neutral conditions , 1989 .

[159]  P. Schwerdtfeger,et al.  Flux‐gradient relationships for momentum and heat over a rough natural surface , 1989 .

[160]  J. Wieringa,et al.  SHAPES OF ANNUAL FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF WIND SPEED OBSERVED ON HIGH METEOROLOGICAL MASTS , 1989 .

[161]  Sven Halldin,et al.  Turbulent exchange above a pine forest, I: Fluxes and gradients , 1989 .

[162]  J. Walmsley,et al.  Internal boundary-layer height formulae — A comparison with atmospheric data , 1989 .

[163]  J. M. Rees,et al.  THE STABLE ANTARCTIC BOUNDARY LAYER EXPERIMENT AT HALLEY STATION , 1989 .

[164]  B. Choudhury,et al.  Estimate of the aerodynamic roughness parameters over an incomplete canopy cover of cotton , 1989 .

[165]  R. Shaw,et al.  Observation of organized structure in turbulent flow within and above a forest canopy , 1989 .

[166]  F. Chen.  Turbulent characteristics over a rough natural surface part I: Turbulent structures , 1990 .

[167]  J. King.  Some measurements of turbulence over an antarctic ice shelf , 1990 .

[168]  M. Claussen.  Area-averaging of surface fluxes in a neutrally stratified, horizontally inhomogeneous atmospheric boundary layer , 1990 .

[169]  R. J. Kind,et al.  Mechanics of aeolian transport of snow and sand , 1990 .

[170]  A. Lo.  On the determination of zero-plane displacement and roughness length for flow over forest canopies , 1990 .

[171]  J. Kondo,et al.  The Influence of Canopy Structure and Density upon the Mixing Length within and above Vegetation , 1990 .

[172]  J. R. Garratt,et al.  The internal boundary layer — A review , 1990 .

[173]  Stefan Emeis.  Pressure Drag of Obstacles in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer , 1990 .

[174]  R. Vogt,et al.  Evaporation from a pine forest - using the aerodynamic method and bowen ratio method , 1990 .

[175]  Antonio O. Manzi,et al.  Micrometeorological measurements in Amazon forest during GTE/ABLE 2A mission , 1990 .

[176]  P. Mason,et al.  Observations of boundary-layer structure over complex terrain , 1990 .

[177]  Turbulent characteristics over a rough natural surface part II: Responses of profiles to turbulence , 1990 .

[178]  Hans Peter Schmid,et al.  A model to estimate the source area contributing to turbulent exchange in the surface layer over patchy terrain , 1990 .

[179]  W. A. Oost,et al.  The roughness of wind waves , 1991 .

[180]  Kenneth L. Davidson,et al.  The aerodynamic roughness of different types of sea ice , 1991 .

[181]  Martin Claussen,et al.  Estimation of areally-averaged surface fluxes , 1991 .

[182]  Albert A. M. Holtslag,et al.  Flux Parameterization over Land Surfaces for Atmospheric Models , 1991 .

[183]  H. W. Tieleman,et al.  Wind characteristics in the surface layer over heterogeneous terrain , 1992 .

[184]  Jon Wieringa,et al.  Updating the Davenport roughness classification , 1992 .