BEST PRACTICE FOR MEASURING WIND SPEEDS AND TURBULENCE OFFSHORE THROUGH IN-SITU AND REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGIES

Acknowledgment: “This material is based upon work supported by the Department of Energy under Award Number #DE-EE0005379.” Disclaimer: “This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.”

[1]  ICHEL C HONG A Multiple-Doppler Synthesis and Continuity Adjustment Technique ( MUSCAT ) to Recover Wind Components from Doppler Radar Measurements , 2017 .

[2]  Rebecca J. Barthelmie,et al.  Meteorological Controls on Wind Turbine Wakes , 2013, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[3]  Rebecca J. Barthelmie,et al.  Ten years of meteorological measurements for offshore wind farms , 2005 .

[4]  J. R. Garratt,et al.  The internal boundary layer — A review , 1990 .

[5]  Charlotte Bay Hasager,et al.  Wind Class Sampling of Satellite SAR Imagery for Offshore Wind Resource Mapping , 2010 .

[6]  N. M. Nielsen,et al.  Offshore Wind Turbine Wakes Measured by Sodar , 2003 .

[7]  T. Nakai,et al.  Ultrasonic anemometer angle of attack errors under turbulent conditions , 2012 .

[8]  J. Lundquist,et al.  Nocturnal Low-Level Jet Characteristics Over Kansas During Cases-99 , 2002 .

[9]  Kurt Schaldemose Hansen,et al.  Simulation of wake effects between two wind farms , 2015 .

[10]  M. A. Goodberlet,et al.  Remote sensing of ocean surface winds with the special sensor microwave/imager , 1989 .

[11]  B. Lange,et al.  Comparison of Wake Model Simulations with Offshore Wind Turbine Wake Profiles Measured by Sodar , 2006 .

[12]  Fred V. Brock,et al.  Meteorological Measurement Systems , 2001 .

[13]  Carl A. Mears,et al.  Comparison of Special Sensor Microwave Imager and buoy‐measured wind speeds from 1987 to 1997 , 2001 .

[14]  Low-Level Wind Maxima and Structure of the Stably Stratified Boundary Layer in the Coastal Zone , 2014 .

[15]  Pavol Bauer,et al.  Trends of offshore wind projects , 2015 .

[16]  Paris W. Vachon,et al.  A new wind vector algorithm for C-band SAR , 2005, IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing.

[17]  Rebecca J. Barthelmie,et al.  The influence of humidity fluxes on offshore wind speed profiles , 2010 .

[18]  Emmanuel Branlard,et al.  Retrieving wind statistics from average spectrum of continuous-wave lidar , 2013 .

[19]  Michael J. Caruso,et al.  Comparisons between the TAO Buoy and NASA Scatterometer Wind Vectors , 2001 .

[20]  J. Schoof,et al.  Assessing the fidelity of AOGCM‐simulated relationships between large‐scale modes of climate variability and wind speeds , 2014 .

[21]  A. Beljaars,et al.  The Influence of Sampling and Filtering on Measured Wind Gusts , 1987 .

[22]  D. Lenschow,et al.  How long is long enough when measuring fluxes and other turbulence statistics , 1994 .

[23]  C. Collier,et al.  A pulsed coherent CO2 lidar for boundary‐layer meteorology , 1999 .

[24]  Rebecca J. Barthelmie,et al.  A new turbulence model for offshore wind turbine standards , 2014 .

[25]  Charles S. Zender,et al.  Estimated global ocean wind power potential from QuikSCAT observations, accounting for turbine characteristics and siting , 2010 .

[26]  Marcias Martinez,et al.  Load monitoring for active control of wind turbines , 2015 .

[27]  C. M. Sonnenschein,et al.  Signal-to-Noise Relationships for Coaxial Systems that Heterodyne Backscatter from the Atmosphere. , 1971, Applied optics.

[28]  Charlotte Bay Hasager,et al.  Satellite winds as a tool for offshore wind resource assessment: The Great Lakes Wind Atlas , 2015 .

[29]  T. Mikkelsen Lidar-based Research and Innovation at DTU Wind Energy – a Review , 2014 .

[30]  Jean Palutikof,et al.  A review of methods to calculate extreme wind speeds , 1999 .

[31]  Ola M. Johannessen,et al.  SAR-retrieved wind in polar regions-comparison with in situ data and atmospheric model output , 2002, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens..

[32]  Luca Delle Monache,et al.  Meteorology For Coastal/Offshore Wind Energy In The United States: Recommendations And Research Needs For The Next 10 Years , 2014 .

[33]  Stefan Emeis,et al.  Surface-based remote sensing of the mixing-layer height a review , 2008 .

[34]  Stuart Bradley,et al.  Atmospheric Acoustic Remote Sensing: Principles and Applications , 2007 .

[35]  G.J.W. Van Bussel,et al.  Validation of surface layer similarity theory to describe far offshore marine conditions in the Dutch North Sea in scope of wind energy research , 2015 .

[36]  Bringing satellite winds to hub-height , 2012 .

[37]  Santiago Pindado,et al.  Cup Anemometers’ Loss of Performance Due to Ageing Processes, and Its Effect on Annual Energy Production (AEP) Estimates , 2012 .

[38]  R. Stull An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology , 1988 .

[39]  M. Nielsen,et al.  Wind resource assessment from C-band SAR , 2006 .

[40]  Neil Kelley,et al.  Analysis of Light Detection and Ranging Wind Speed Measurements for Wind Turbine Control , 2014 .

[41]  H. Charnock Wind stress on a water surface , 1955 .

[42]  R. Barthelmie,et al.  Inter‐annual variability of wind indices across Europe , 2006 .

[43]  W. Timothy Liu,et al.  Wind power distribution over the ocean , 2008 .

[44]  Mark Heuer,et al.  How Well Can We Measure the Vertical Wind Speed? Implications for Fluxes of Energy and Mass , 2012, Boundary-Layer Meteorology.

[45]  J. Mann The spatial structure of neutral atmospheric surface-layer turbulence , 1994, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[46]  Charlotte Bay Hasager,et al.  Wake effects of large offshore wind farms identified from satellite SAR , 2005 .

[47]  Julie K. Lundquist,et al.  Performance of a Wind-Profiling Lidar in the Region of Wind Turbine Rotor Disks , 2010 .

[48]  Jens Carsten Hansen,et al.  Field calibration of cup anemometers , 2007 .

[49]  Rod Frehlich,et al.  Estimating Spatial Velocity Statistics with Coherent Doppler Lidar , 2002 .

[50]  Ioannis Antoniou,et al.  The influence of the wind speed profile on wind turbine performance measurements , 2009 .

[51]  Davide Trabucchi,et al.  IEA Task 32: Wind Lidar Systems for Wind Energy Deployment (LIDAR) , 2016 .

[52]  Rebecca J. Barthelmie,et al.  Meteorological aspects of offshore wind energy: Observations from the Vindeby wind farm , 1996 .

[53]  J. Mann,et al.  Conically scanning lidar error in complex terrain , 2009 .

[54]  Harindra J. S. Fernando,et al.  Triple Doppler wind lidar observations during the mountain terrain atmospheric modeling and observations field campaign , 2016 .

[55]  Christian Werner,et al.  Measurements of Turbulent Energy Dissipation Rate with a CW Doppler Lidar in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer , 1999 .

[56]  Saad Mekhilef,et al.  Progress and recent trends of wind energy technology , 2013 .

[57]  Ronald Calhoun,et al.  Coherent Doppler lidar for wind farm characterization , 2013 .

[58]  Ronald Calhoun,et al.  Instrument configuration for dual-Doppler lidar coplanar scans: METCRAX II , 2015 .

[59]  Dennis J. Boccippio,et al.  A Diagnostic Analysis of the VVP Single-Doppler Retrieval Technique , 1995 .

[60]  Guy N. Pearson,et al.  Dual-Doppler Lidar Measurements for Improving Dispersion Models. , 2005 .

[61]  Jihoon Kim,et al.  Wind Estimation and Airspeed Calibration using a UAV with a Single-Antenna GPS Receiver and Pitot Tube , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems.

[62]  R. Barthelmie,et al.  Can Satellite Sampling of Offshore Wind Speeds Realistically Represent Wind Speed Distributions , 2003 .

[63]  Robert M. Banta,et al.  Turbulent Velocity-Variance Profiles in the Stable Boundary Layer Generated by a Nocturnal Low-Level Jet , 2006 .

[64]  R. Barthelmie,et al.  Can Satellite Sampling of Offshore Wind Speeds Realistically Represent Wind Speed Distributions? Part II: Quantifying Uncertainties Associated with Distribution Fitting Methods , 2004 .

[65]  A. Monahan Can We See the Wind? Statistical Downscaling of Historical Sea Surface Winds in the Subarctic Northeast Pacific , 2012 .

[66]  K. A. Browning,et al.  The Determination of Kinematic Properties of a Wind Field Using Doppler Radar , 1968 .

[67]  J. Mann,et al.  A review of turbulence measurements using ground-based wind lidars , 2013 .

[68]  Jacob Berg,et al.  Addressing Spatial Variability of Surface-Layer Wind with Long-Range WindScanners , 2015 .

[69]  Steven Lang,et al.  LIDAR and SODAR Measurements of Wind Speed and Direction in Upland Terrain for Wind Energy Purposes , 2011, Remote. Sens..

[70]  Charlotte Bay Hasager,et al.  How Expensive Is Expensive Enough? Opportunities for Cost Reductions in Offshore Wind Energy Logistics , 2016 .

[71]  H. Fernando,et al.  Virtual towers using coherent doppler lidar during the Joint Urban 2003 dispersion experiment , 2006 .

[72]  B. H. Jørgensen,et al.  Offshore Coastal Wind Speed Gradients: Issues for the Design and Development of Large Offshore Windfarms , 2007 .

[73]  Frank J. Wentz,et al.  A model function for the ocean‐normalized radar cross section at 14 GHz derived from NSCAT observations , 1999 .

[74]  Jake Badger,et al.  Extreme wind atlas from the selective dynamical downscaling method , 2011 .

[75]  Julie K. Lundquist,et al.  Quantifying Wind Turbine Wake Characteristics from Scanning Remote Sensor Data , 2014 .

[76]  D. Vickers,et al.  Flow Adjustments Across Sea-Surface Temperature Changes , 2004 .

[77]  Julia Gottschall,et al.  Can wind lidars measure turbulence , 2011 .

[78]  Jan-Åke Dahlberg,et al.  ACCUWIND - Classification of five cup anemometers according to IEC 61400-12-1 , 2006 .

[79]  Monique Bernier,et al.  Synthetic aperture radar satellite data for offshore wind assessment: A strategic sampling approach , 2011 .

[80]  M. de Noord Uncertainties in Cup Anemometer Calibrations Type A and Type B uncertainties , 2005 .

[81]  Stefan Emeis,et al.  The dependence of offshore turbulence intensity on wind speed , 2010 .

[82]  Thomas Scanlon,et al.  Measurement and simulation of the flow field around the FINO 3 triangular lattice meteorological mast , 2014 .

[83]  Susanne Drechsel,et al.  Three-Dimensional Wind Retrieval: Application of MUSCAT to Dual-Doppler Lidar , 2008 .

[84]  W. Timothy Liu,et al.  Progress in Scatterometer Application , 2002 .

[85]  Rachael V. Coquilla,et al.  Verification Testing of Sonic Anemometer Wind Speed Measurements for Wind Energy Applications , 2010 .

[86]  J. Mathisen,et al.  Measurement of wind profile with a buoy mounted lidar , 2013 .

[87]  Sukanta Basu,et al.  Mesoscale modeling of coastal low‐level jets: implications for offshore wind resource estimation , 2014 .

[88]  N. J. Tarp-Johansen,et al.  Application of Design Standards to the Design of Offshore Wind Turbines in the U.S. , 2006 .

[89]  Per Jonas Petter Lindelöw,et al.  Wind shear proportional errors in the horizontal wind speed sensed by focused, range gated lidars , 2008 .

[90]  S. Tsadka,et al.  Wind measurement via direct detection lidar , 2013, Remote Sensing.

[91]  J. van Beeck,et al.  Turbulent fluxes, stability and shear in the offshore environment: Mesoscale modelling and field observations at FINO1 , 2012 .

[92]  Siegfried Raasch,et al.  Assessment of Surface-Layer Coherent Structure Detection in Dual-Doppler Lidar Data Based on Virtual Measurements , 2015, Boundary-Layer Meteorology.

[93]  Ronald Calhoun,et al.  Investigation of a Complex Nocturnal Flow in Owens Valley, California Using Coherent Doppler Lidar , 2012, Boundary-Layer Meteorology.

[94]  N. Vasiljević A time-space synchronization of coherent Doppler scanning lidars for 3D measurements of wind fields , 2014 .

[95]  S. Bradley,et al.  Corrections for Wind-Speed Errors from Sodar and Lidar in Complex Terrain , 2012, Boundary-Layer Meteorology.

[96]  Rebecca J. Barthelmie,et al.  3D Wind and Turbulence Characteristics of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer , 2014 .

[97]  P Dalhoff,et al.  Yaw Systems for wind turbines – Overview of concepts, current challenges and design methods , 2014 .

[98]  Charlotte Bay Hasager,et al.  Remote sensing technologies for measuring offshore wind , 2016 .

[99]  Larry K. Berg,et al.  Turbine‐scale wind field measurements using dual‐Doppler lidar , 2015 .

[100]  Monique Bernier,et al.  Regional Mapping of the Offshore Wind Resource: Towards a Significant Contribution From Space-Borne Synthetic Aperture Radars , 2008, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing.

[101]  Charlotte Bay Hasager,et al.  Using airborne and satellite SAR for wake mapping offshore , 2006 .

[102]  Stefan Emeis Current issues in wind energy meteorology , 2014 .

[103]  Biao Zhang,et al.  Wind retrieval from synthetic aperture radar - an overview , 2013 .