Central Neural Control of Respiration and Circulation During Exercise

The sections in this article are: 1 Respiration 2 Circulation 3 Central Command Mechanisms 3.1 Central Drive of Locomotion 3.2 Locomotor Pattern Generator 3.3 Supraspinal Locomotor Sites 4 Central Command Control of Respiration and Circulation in Animals 4.1 Cerebral Cortex 4.2 Hypothalamic Locomotor Region 4.3 Mesencephalic Locomotor Region 4.4 Amygdala 4.5 Awake, Exercising Animal Studies 5 Short-Term Potentiation 5.1 Respiration 6 Central Command Control of Respiration and Circulation in Humans 6.1 Respiration 6.2 Circulation 7 Interactions Between Central Command and Peripheral Feedback 8 Interaction of Central Command with Cardiorespiratory Reflexes 8.1 Baroreceptor Reflex 8.2 Hering-Breuer Reflex 8.3 Chemoreceptor Reflexes 9 Conclusions

[1]  T. Lovick Projections from the diencephalon and mesencephalon to nucleus paragigantocellularis lateralis in the cat , 1985, Neuroscience.

[2]  G. Iwamoto,et al.  Properties of ventrolateral medullary neurons that respond to muscular contraction , 1992, Brain Research Bulletin.

[3]  T. Waldrop,et al.  Prolonged post-stimulus inhibition of breathing following stimulation of afferents from muscle. , 1982, Respiration physiology.

[4]  J. Hubbard,et al.  An investigation of the post‐tetanic potentiation of end‐plate potentials at a mammalian neuromuscular junction , 1966, The Journal of physiology.

[5]  E Hultman,et al.  Blood pressure and heart rate response to voluntary and nonvoluntary static exercise in man. , 1982, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[6]  Afferent brainstem projections to the hypothalmic locomotor region of the cat brain , 2005, Neurophysiology.

[7]  E. Garcia-Rill,et al.  Chemical activation of the mesecephalic locomotor region , 1985, Brain Research.

[8]  J. Senapati Effect of stimulation of muscle afferents on ventilation of dogs. , 1966, Journal of applied physiology.

[9]  M. I. Cohen,et al.  THE RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM AND RESPIRATORY REGULATION IN THE CAT * , 1963, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[10]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Neural control of cardiovascular responses and of ventilation during dynamic exercise in man. , 1993, The Journal of physiology.

[11]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Cardiovascular control during exercise: central and reflex neural mechanisms. , 1985, The American journal of cardiology.

[12]  H. Folgering Beta-adrenergic drugs do not affect phrenic nerve afterdischarge , 1981, Pflügers Archiv.

[13]  P. Luiten,et al.  The course of paraventricular hypothalamic efferents to autonomic structures in medulla and spinal cord , 1985, Brain Research.

[14]  B L McNaughton,et al.  Long‐term synaptic enhancement and short‐term potentiation in rat fascia dentata act through different mechanisms , 1982, The Journal of physiology.

[15]  D. McCloskey Centrally-generated commands and cardiovascular control in man. , 1981, Clinical and experimental hypertension.

[16]  D. G. Davies,et al.  Effect of the rate of rise of carotid body PCO2 on the time course of ventilation. , 1967, Respiration physiology.

[17]  E. Asmussen,et al.  EXPERIMENTS ON NERVOUS FACTORS CONTROLLING RESPIRATION AND CIRCULATION DURING EXERCISE EMPLOYING BLOCKING OF THE BLOOD FLOW. , 1964, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[18]  F. Eldridge Subthreshold central neural respiratory activity and afterdischarge. , 1980, Respiration physiology.

[19]  N. Anthonisen,et al.  Hypoxic exposure and activation of the afterdischarge mechanism in conscious humans. , 1990, Journal of applied physiology.

[20]  F. Grodins,et al.  Evidence in man for a fast neural mechanism during the early phase of exercise hyperpnea. , 1982, Respiration physiology.

[21]  K. M. Spyer,et al.  Neural organisation and control of the baroreceptor reflex. , 1981, Reviews of physiology, biochemistry and pharmacology.

[22]  T. Waldrop,et al.  Responses of feline caudal hypothalamic cardiorespiratory neurons to hypoxia and hypercapnia , 2004, Experimental Brain Research.

[23]  W. Gardner,et al.  Post‐hyperventilation apnoea in conscious humans. , 1994, The Journal of physiology.

[24]  E. Asmussen,et al.  Ventilation at transition from rest to exercise. , 1973, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[25]  E. Asmussen,et al.  Cortical or Reflex Control of Respiration dnring Muscular Work , 1943 .

[26]  D. Seals Influence of force on muscle and skin sympathetic nerve activity during sustained isometric contractions in humans. , 1993, The Journal of physiology.

[27]  T. Waldrop,et al.  Exercise hyperpnea and locomotion: parallel activation from the hypothalamus. , 1981, Science.

[28]  T. Waldrop,et al.  Hypothalamic GABAergic mechanism involved in respiratory response to hypercapnia , 1992, Brain Research Bulletin.

[29]  L. Arendt-Nielsen,et al.  The effect of epidural anaesthesia with 1% lidocaine on the pressor response to dynamic exercise in man. , 1993, The Journal of physiology.

[30]  U. Scherrer,et al.  Stimulation of skin sympathetic nerve discharge by central command. Differential control of sympathetic outflow to skin and skeletal muscle during static exercise. , 1991, Circulation research.

[31]  C. Dean,et al.  Discharge patterns in postganglionic neurones to skeletal muscle and kidney during activation of the hypothalamic and midbrain defence areas in the cat , 1986, Brain Research.

[32]  L. Kaczmarek,et al.  The expression of long lasting afterdischarge by isolated Aplysia bag cell neurons , 1981, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[33]  S. Miller,et al.  Coordinated stepping of all four limbs in the high spinal cat , 1976, Brain Research.

[34]  F. Zechman,et al.  Ventilatory responses to static handgrip exercise. , 1983, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[35]  H. Loeschcke,et al.  Lokalisation eines an der Regulation von Atmung und Kreislauf beteiligten Gebietes an der ventralen Oberfläche der Medulla oblongata durch Kälteblockade , 1967, Pflüger's Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere.

[36]  J. N. Mills Hyperpnoea induced by forced breathing , 1946, The Journal of physiology.

[37]  R. Zucker Short-term synaptic plasticity. , 1989 .

[38]  L. Jordan,et al.  The close proximity of catecholamine-containing cells to the ‘mesencephalic locomotor region’ (MLR) , 1975, Brain Research.

[39]  C. Spengler,et al.  The role of central command in ventilatory control during static exercise , 2004, European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology.

[40]  J. Dempsey,et al.  Determinants of poststimulus potentiation in humans during NREM sleep. , 1992, Journal of applied physiology.

[41]  D. Richter,et al.  Changes in extracellular potassium during the spontaneous activity of medullary respiratory neurones , 1978, Pflügers Archiv.

[42]  T. Brown On the nature of the fundamental activity of the nervous centres; together with an analysis of the conditioning of rhythmic activity in progression, and a theory of the evolution of function in the nervous system , 1914, The Journal of physiology.

[43]  R. M. Bauer,et al.  Modulation of sympathetic discharge by a hypothalamic GABAergic mechanism , 1989, Neuropharmacology.

[44]  S. Gandevia,et al.  Cardiovascular responses to static exercise in man: central and reflex contributions. , 1990, The Journal of physiology.

[45]  N. Anthonisen,et al.  Respiratory short-term potentiation (after-discharge) in elderly humans. , 1993, Respiration physiology.

[46]  H. A. al Maskati,et al.  Cardiovascular and motor components of the defence reaction elicited in rats by electrical and chemical stimulation in amygdala. , 1989, Journal of the autonomic nervous system.

[47]  J. Dempsey,et al.  Ventilatory afterdischarge and central respiratory drive interactions in the awake goat. , 1994, Journal of applied physiology.

[48]  J. Dempsey,et al.  Arterial blood acid-base regulation during exercise in rats. , 1984, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[49]  T. Bedford,et al.  A model of dynamic exercise: the decerebrate rat locomotor preparation. , 1992, Journal of applied physiology.

[50]  T A Sears,et al.  Spinal integration of segmental, cortical and breathing inputs to thoracic respiratory motoneurones , 1971, The Journal of physiology.

[51]  I P PRIBAN,et al.  An analysis of some short‐term patterns of breathing in man at rest , 1963, The Journal of physiology.

[52]  A. Hemingway,et al.  Shivering as a result of brain stimulation. , 1957, Journal of neurophysiology.

[53]  S. Rossitti,et al.  Temporal heterogeneity of the blood flow velocity at the middle cerebral artery in the normal human characterized by fractal analysis. , 1994, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[54]  A. Mark,et al.  Differential control of heart rate and sympathetic nerve activity during dynamic exercise. Insight from intraneural recordings in humans. , 1987, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[55]  C. Brooks,et al.  Stimulation of suprabulbar reticular formation; effect on elements of spinal reflex pathways. , 1955, A.M.A. archives of neurology and psychiatry.

[56]  O. Smith,et al.  Topographical representation of vascular smooth muscle of limbs in primate motor cortex. , 1968, The American journal of physiology.

[57]  H. Forster,et al.  Hyperventilation in ponies at the onset of and during steady-state exercise. , 1983, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[58]  R. M. Bauer,et al.  A GABAergic mechanism in the posterior hypothalamus modulates baroreflex bradycardia , 1988, Brain Research Bulletin.

[59]  S. W. Ranson,et al.  Descending pathways from the hypothalamus to the medulla and spinal cord. Observations on blood pressure and bladder responses , 1939 .

[60]  F. Eldridge,et al.  Development of short-term potentiation of respiration. , 1991, Respiration physiology.

[61]  T. Waldrop,et al.  Control of respiration by the hypothalamus and by feedback from contracting muscles in cats. , 1986, Respiration physiology.

[62]  F. Calaresu,et al.  Responses of single units in the medial hypothalamus to electrical stimulation of the carotid sinus nerve in the cat. , 1972, Brain research.

[63]  J S Haldane,et al.  The regulation of the lung‐ventilation , 1905, The Journal of physiology.

[64]  T. Waldrop,et al.  Hypothalamic GABAergic modulation of respiratory responses to baroreceptor stimulation. , 1991, Respiration physiology.

[65]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Partial neuromuscular blockade and cardiovascular responses to static exercise in man. , 1985, The Journal of physiology.

[66]  D. McCloskey,et al.  Reflex cardiovascular and respiratory responses originating in exercising muscle , 1972, The Journal of physiology.

[67]  W. M. Boothby Absence of apnœa after forced breathing , 1912, The Journal of physiology.

[68]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Epidural anaesthesia and cardiovascular responses to static exercise in man. , 1989, The Journal of physiology.

[69]  R. Enoka,et al.  Sympathetic activation is associated with increases in EMG during fatiguing exercise. , 1989, Journal of applied physiology.

[70]  R S Zucker,et al.  Calcium in motor nerve terminals associated with posttetanic potentiation , 1989, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[71]  R. Gesell,et al.  AN ACID-NEUROHUMORAL MECHANISM OF NERVE CELL ACTIVATION , 1942 .

[72]  T. Lovick,et al.  Excitatory projections from hypothalamic and midbrain defense regions to nucleus paragigantocellularis lateralis in the rat , 1985, Experimental Neurology.

[73]  A. R. Lind,et al.  Respiratory responses to sustained static muscular contractions in humans. , 1971, Clinical science.

[74]  R. P. Forsyth Hypothalamic Control of the Distribution of Cardiac Output in the Unanesthetized Rhesus Monkey , 1970, Circulation research.

[75]  T. Waldrop,et al.  Effects of medullary area I(s) cooling on respiratory response to chemoreceptor inputs. , 1982, Respiration physiology.

[76]  D. McCloskey,et al.  Cardiovascular and respiratory responses to changes in central command during isometric exercise at constant muscle tension , 1972, The Journal of physiology.

[77]  L. Kaijser,et al.  Blood flow in the resting forearm during prolonged contralateral isometric handgrip at maximal effort , 1978, The Journal of physiology.

[78]  W. Redfern,et al.  A search for brain stem cell groups integrating the defence reaction in the rat. , 1986, The Journal of physiology.

[79]  M. L. Shik,et al.  The pontobulbar "locomotor strip" , 2005, Neurophysiology.

[80]  K. Myhre,et al.  Respiratory responses to static muscular work. , 1971, Respiration physiology.

[81]  J. Duffin,et al.  The effect of exercise on the central‐chemoreceptor threshold in man. , 1987, The Journal of physiology.

[82]  N J Emptage,et al.  Long-term synaptic facilitation in the absence of short-term facilitation in Aplysia neurons. , 1993, Science.

[83]  W. Gonyea,et al.  Distribution of cardiac output during static exercise in the conscious cat. , 1982, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[84]  E. Redgate HYPOTHALAMIC INFLUENCE ON RESPIRATION * , 1963, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[85]  H. Frankel,et al.  The role of spinal cord transmission in the ventilatory response to exercise in man. , 1984, The Journal of physiology.

[86]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Regional blood flow responses to stimulation of the subthalamic locomotor region. , 1986, Respiration physiology.

[87]  A. Mark,et al.  Microneurographic studies of the mechanisms of sympathetic nerve responses to static exercise in humans. , 1985, Circulation research.

[88]  M Crawford,et al.  Respiratory sensations, cardiovascular control, kinaesthesia and transcranial stimulation during paralysis in humans. , 1993, The Journal of physiology.

[89]  T. Brown The intrinsic factors in the act of progression in the mammal , 1911 .

[90]  E. Asmussen,et al.  On the Regulation of Circulation during Muscular Work. , 1943 .

[91]  L. Jordan,et al.  Autoradiographic demonstration of the projections from the mesencephalic locomotor region , 1984, Brain Research.

[92]  J. Mitchell,et al.  The effect of static exercise on renal sympathetic nerve activity in conscious cats. , 1991, The Journal of physiology.

[93]  E. Garcia-Rill The basal ganglia and the locomotor regions , 1986, Brain Research Reviews.

[94]  F. Eldridge,et al.  Lack of effect of vagal afferent input on central neural respiratory afterdischarge. , 1978, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[95]  A. Guz,et al.  Central command influences cardiorespiratory response to dynamic exercise in humans with unilateral weakness. , 1992, The Journal of physiology.

[96]  J. Kiley,et al.  Stimulation by central command of locomotion, respiration and circulation during exercise. , 1985, Respiration physiology.

[97]  D. McCloskey,et al.  Effect of spontaneous exercise on reflex slowing of the heart in decerebrate cats. , 1986, Journal of the autonomic nervous system.

[98]  G. Iwamoto,et al.  Occlusion of pressor responses to posterior diencephalic stimulation and muscular contraction , 1989, Brain Research Bulletin.

[99]  J. Duffin,et al.  The ventilatory response to carbon dioxide in hyperoxic exercise. , 1980, Respiration physiology.

[100]  D. Shannon,et al.  Ventilatory responses to exercise in humans lacking ventilatory chemosensitivity. , 1993, The Journal of physiology.

[101]  S. Gandevia,et al.  Cardiovascular responses and the sense of effort during attempts to contract paralysed muscles: Role of the spinal cord , 1985, Neuroscience Letters.

[102]  J. Coote,et al.  Inhibition of the baroreceptor reflex on stimulation in the brain stem defence centre , 1979, The Journal of physiology.

[103]  Orlovskiĭ Gn [Relations between reticulo-spinal neurons and locomotor regions of the brain stem]. , 1970 .

[104]  G. Torelli,et al.  Neural stimuli increasing respiration during different types of exercise. , 1971, Journal of applied physiology.

[105]  V. C. Abrahams,et al.  Active muscle vasodilatation produced by stimulation of the brain stem: its significance in the defence reaction , 1960, The Journal of physiology.

[106]  F. Eldridge,et al.  Central neural respiratory drive and afterdischarge. , 1980, Respiration physiology.

[107]  T. Brown,et al.  The Phenomenon of "Narcosis Progression" in Mammals , 1913 .

[108]  R. Grossman,et al.  Effects of stimulation of non-specific thalamic system on locomotor movements in cat. , 1958, Journal of neurophysiology.

[109]  M. L. Shik,et al.  Unit responses in the "locomotor strip" of the cat hindbrain to microstimulation , 2005, Neurophysiology.

[110]  S. Kasicki,et al.  The Breuer-Hering reflex at rest and during electrically induced locomotion in decerebrate cat. , 1986, Acta neurobiologiae experimentalis.

[111]  R. Fitzgerald,et al.  Ventilatory response to square-wave forcing of carbon dioxide at the carotid bodies. , 1968, Respiration physiology.

[112]  J. Wible,et al.  Microinjection of GABA antagonists into posterior hypothalamus elevates heart rate in anesthetizes rats , 1986, Neuropharmacology.

[113]  T. Waldrop,et al.  Effects of hypothalamic lesions on the cardiorespiratory responses to muscular contraction. , 1986, Respiration physiology.

[114]  J. Rothwell,et al.  Activation of the human diaphragm from the motor cortex. , 1987, The Journal of physiology.

[115]  R. Timms,et al.  Ventral medullary relay neurones in the pathway from the defence areas of the cat and their effect on blood pressure. , 1983, The Journal of physiology.

[116]  M. Kjaer,et al.  Cardiovascular, ventilatory and catecholamine responses to maximal dynamic exercise in partially curarized man. , 1987, The Journal of physiology.

[117]  Short latency inputs to phrenic motoneurones from the sensorimotor cortex in the cat , 2004, Experimental Brain Research.

[118]  W. Cowan,et al.  Direct hypothalamo-autonomic connections , 1976, Brain Research.

[119]  A Krogh,et al.  The regulation of respiration and circulation during the initial stages of muscular work , 1913, The Journal of physiology.

[120]  J. Dempsey,et al.  Ventilatory afterdischarge in the awake goat. , 1991, Journal of applied physiology.

[121]  A. Krogh,et al.  A comparison between voluntary and electrically induced muscular work in man , 1917, Journal of Physiology.

[122]  C. Trouth,et al.  Effects on respiration and circulation of electrically stimulating the ventral surface of the medulla oblongata. , 1970, Respiration physiology.

[123]  H. Folgering,et al.  Phrenic nerve afterdischarge after electrical stimulation of the carotid sinus nerve in cats. , 1981, Respiration physiology.

[124]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Autonomic blockade and cardiovascular responses to static exercise in partially curarized man. , 1989, The Journal of physiology.

[125]  E. Asmussen,et al.  ON THE NERVOUS FACTORS CONTROLLING RESPIRATION AND CIRCULATION DURING EXERCISE. EXPERIMENTS WITH CURARIZATION. , 1965, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[126]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Effects of partial neuromuscular blockade on sympathetic nerve responses to static exercise in humans. , 1989, Circulation research.

[127]  J. Dempsey,et al.  Ventilatory response of goats to treadmill exercise: grade effects. , 1983, Respiration physiology.

[128]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Cardiovascular responses to voluntary and nonvoluntary static exercise in humans. , 1992, Journal of applied physiology.

[129]  R. Johnson,et al.  Role of sensory nerves in the cardiovascular and respiratory changes with isometric forearm exercise in man. , 1981, Clinical science.

[130]  D. Weinreich Ionic mechanism of post‐tetanic potentiation at the neuromuscular junction of the frog , 1971, The Journal of physiology.

[131]  N. Zuntz,et al.  Ueber die Natur der normalen Athemreize und den Ort ihrer Wirkung , 1886, Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere.

[132]  R. Fregosi Short-term potentiation of breathing in humans. , 1991, Journal of applied physiology.

[133]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Cardiovascular and ventilatory responses to dynamic exercise during epidural anaesthesia in man. , 1990, The Journal of physiology.

[134]  J. Johansson Ueber die Einwirkung der Muskelthätigkeit auf die Athmung und die Herzthätigkeit1 , 1894 .

[135]  B. Katz,et al.  The role of calcium in neuromuscular facilitation , 1968, The Journal of physiology.

[136]  J. Kiley,et al.  Dynamics of medullary hydrogen ion and respiratory responses to square‐wave change of arterial carbon dioxide in cats. , 1987, The Journal of physiology.

[137]  N. Secher,et al.  Cardiovascular and ventilatory responses to electrically induced cycling with complete epidural anaesthesia in humans. , 1994, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[138]  J. Rosenthal Post‐tetanic potentiation at the neuromuscular junction of the frog , 1969, The Journal of physiology.

[139]  Spyer Km,et al.  The origin of the hind limb vasodilatation evoked by stimulation of the motor cortex in the cat. , 1979 .

[140]  J. R. Romaniuk,et al.  Immediate changes in ventilation and respiratory pattern associated with onset and cessation of locomotion in the cat. , 1983, The Journal of physiology.

[141]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Blood pressure and heart rate response to static exercise in relation to electromyographic activity and force development. , 1981, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[142]  G. Iwamoto,et al.  Microinjection of GABA antagonists into the posterior hypothalamus elicits locomotor activity and a cardiorespiratory activation , 1988, Brain Research.

[143]  T. Waldrop Posterior hypothalamic modulation of the respiratory response to CO2 in cats , 1991, Pflügers Archiv.

[144]  T. Waldrop,et al.  Modulation of the respiratory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia by synaptic input onto caudal hypothalamic neurons , 1994, Brain Research.

[145]  A. Zbrożyna,et al.  Amygdaloid region for defence reactions and its efferent pathway to the brain stem , 1963, The Journal of physiology.

[146]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Central command increases muscle sympathetic nerve activity during intense intermittent isometric exercise in humans. , 1995, Circulation research.

[147]  F. Eldridge,et al.  Input‐output relationships of central neural circuits involved in respiration in cats , 1981, The Journal of physiology.

[148]  S. Barman Descending projections of hypothalamic neurons with sympathetic nerve-related activity. , 1990, Journal of neurophysiology.

[149]  A. R. Lind,et al.  Amplitude of the surface electromyogram during fatiguing isometric contractions , 1979, Muscle & nerve.

[150]  R Llinás,et al.  Intraterminal injection of synapsin I or calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II alters neurotransmitter release at the squid giant synapse. , 1985, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[151]  R. Millman,et al.  Ventilatory response to hypercapnia before and after athletic training. , 1984, Respiration physiology.

[152]  K. Murphy,et al.  The early circulatory and ventilatory response to voluntary and electrically induced exercise in man. , 1987, The Journal of physiology.

[153]  CONTROL OF VENTILATION IN EXERCISE , 1983, Exercise and sport sciences reviews.

[154]  F. Eldridge Overview: Role of Neurochemicals and Hormones , 1992 .

[155]  K. Murphy,et al.  Is the voluntary control of exercise in man necessary for the ventilatory response? , 1984, The Journal of physiology.

[156]  F. Calaresu,et al.  Hyppothalamic inhibition of chemoreceptor-induced bradycardia in the cat. , 1973, The American journal of physiology.

[157]  K. Magleby,et al.  A quantitative description of stimulation-induced changes in transmitter release at the frog neuromuscular junction , 1982, The Journal of general physiology.

[158]  R. FitzHugh Impulses and Physiological States in Theoretical Models of Nerve Membrane. , 1961, Biophysical journal.

[159]  E. Garcia-Rill,et al.  The mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) in the rat , 1984, Brain Research.