Individual tree branch-level simulation of light attenuation and water flow of threeF. sylvatica L. trees

[1] A leaf stomatal conductance model was combined with a hydrological tree and soil water flow model and a spatially explicit three-dimensional canopy light model. The model was applied to single, old-growthFagus sylvaticaL. trees, and the measured daily values of stem sap flux could be reproduced with a normalized root mean square error of 0.10 for an observation period of 32 days in the summer of 2009. The high temporal resolution of the model also makes it possible to simulate the diurnal dynamics of transpiration, stem sap flux, and root water uptake. We applied new data-processing algorithms to information from terrestrial laser scans to represent the canopies of the functional-structural model. The high spatial resolution of the root and branch geometry and connectivity makes the detailed modeling of the water usage of single trees possible and allows for the analysis of the interaction between single trees and the influence of the canopy light regime on the water flow inside the xylem. In addition to the laser scans of the observed trees, the model needs tree-species-specific physiological input parameters, which are easy to obtain. The model can be applied at various sites and to different tree species, allowing the up-scaling of the water usage of single trees to the total transpiration of mixed stands.

[1]  C. Leuschner,et al.  Sap flux of five co-occurring tree species in a temperate broad-leaved forest during seasonal soil drought , 2005, Trees.

[2]  Gil Bohrer,et al.  Exploring the Effects of Microscale Structural Heterogeneity of Forest Canopies Using Large-Eddy Simulations , 2009 .

[3]  J. S. Pereira,et al.  Transpiration from a mature Eucalyptus globulus plantation in Portugal during a spring-summer period of progressively higher water deficit , 1997, Oecologia.

[4]  A. Granier,et al.  Evaluation of transpiration in a Douglas-fir stand by means of sap flow measurements. , 1987, Tree physiology.

[5]  Tod A. Laursen,et al.  Finite element tree crown hydrodynamics model (FETCH) using porous media flow within branching elements: A new representation of tree hydrodynamics , 2005 .

[6]  Olaf Kolle,et al.  Large carbon uptake by an unmanaged 250-year-old deciduous forest in Central Germany , 2002 .

[7]  Van Genuchten,et al.  A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils , 1980 .

[8]  D. Hollinger,et al.  Transpiration and canopy conductance in a pristine broad-leaved forest of Nothofagus: an analysis of xylem sap flow and eddy correlation measurements , 1992, Oecologia.

[9]  Hans-Gerd Maas,et al.  Voxel space analysis of terrestrial laser scans in forests for wind field modelling , 2010 .

[10]  C. Leuschner,et al.  Leaf water status and stem xylem flux in relation to soil drought in five temperate broad-leaved tree species with contrasting water use strategies , 2011, Annals of Forest Science.

[11]  E. Priesack,et al.  Functional-structural water flow model reveals differences between diffuse- and ring-porous tree species , 2012 .

[12]  Dennis D. Baldocchi,et al.  Scaling carbon dioxide and water vapour exchange from leaf to canopy in a deciduous forest. II. Model testing and application , 1995 .

[13]  E. D. Ford,et al.  Modeling tree water flow as an unsaturated flow through a porous medium. , 2002, Journal of theoretical biology.

[14]  Anne Verroust-Blondet,et al.  Extracting skeletal curves from 3D scattered data , 1999, Proceedings Shape Modeling International '99. International Conference on Shape Modeling and Applications.

[15]  M. Zimmermann.  Xylem Structure and the Ascent of Sap , 1983, Springer Series in Wood Science.

[16]  M. Nieuwenhuis,et al.  Retrieval of forest structural parameters using LiDAR remote sensing , 2010, European Journal of Forest Research.

[17]  N. Gotelli,et al.  Partitioning the effects of biodiversity and environmental heterogeneity for productivity and mortality in a tropical tree plantation , 2008 .

[18]  I. A. Walter,et al.  The ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation , 2005 .

[19]  Lu Yuan,et al.  Image deblurring with blurred/noisy image pairs , 2007, ACM Trans. Graph..

[20]  Kenji Omasa,et al.  Voxel-Based 3-D Modeling of Individual Trees for Estimating Leaf Area Density Using High-Resolution Portable Scanning Lidar , 2006, IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing.

[21]  E. Priesack,et al.  Modeling stand water budgets of mixed temperate broad-leaved forest stands by considering variations in species specific drought response , 2010 .

[22]  R. Leuning.  A critical appraisal of a combined stomatal‐photosynthesis model for C3 plants , 1995 .

[23]  M. Herbst.  Stomatal behaviour in a beech canopy : an analysis of Bowen ratio measurements compared with porometer data , 1995 .

[24]  P. Campanello,et al.  Coordination between water-transport efficiency and photosynthetic capacity in canopy tree species at different growth irradiances. , 2008, Tree physiology.

[25]  Fruh,et al.  The hydraulic system of trees: theoretical framework and numerical simulation , 1999, Journal of theoretical biology.

[26]  Charles Meneveau,et al.  Large-eddy simulation of plant canopy flows using plant-scale representation , 2007 .

[27]  D. Kimes.  Modeling the directional reflectance from complete homogeneous vegetation canopies with various leaf-orientation distributions , 1984 .

[28]  K. G. McNaughton,et al.  Stomatal Control of Transpiration: Scaling Up from Leaf to Region , 1986 .

[29]  Mathieu Javaux,et al.  A one-dimensional model of water flow in soil-plant systems based on plant architecture , 2011, Plant and Soil.

[30]  Jehn-Yih Juang,et al.  The relationship between reference canopy conductance and simplified hydraulic architecture , 2009 .

[31]  W. Massman,et al.  An Analytical one-Dimensional Second-Order Closure Model of Turbulence Statistics and the Lagrangian Time Scale Within and Above Plant Canopies of Arbitrary Structure , 1999 .

[32]  Christian Wirth,et al.  Is forest diversity driving ecosystem function and service , 2010 .

[33]  S. Dupont,et al.  Influence of foliar density profile on canopy flow: A large-eddy simulation study , 2008 .

[34]  J. Oertli.  Water Transport in Plants under Climatic Stress: Effect of cavitation on the status of water in plants , 1993 .

[35]  G. Bohrer,et al.  The role of canopy structural complexity in wood net primary production of a maturing northern deciduous forest. , 2011, Ecology.

[36]  A. Granier,et al.  Modelling canopy conductance and stand transpiration of an oak forest from sap flow measurements , 1996 .

[37]  Tobias Gebauer.  Water turnover in species-rich and species-poor deciduous forests: xylem sap flow and canopy transpiration , 2010 .

[38]  R. Kittler,et al.  Determination of sky types from global illuminance , 2000 .

[39]  L. A. Richards.  Capillary conduction of liquids through porous mediums , 1931 .

[40]  Rodney J. Keenan,et al.  Planted forests and water in perspective , 2007 .

[41]  J. Phattaralerphong,et al.  Foliage randomness and light interception in 3-D digitized trees: an analysis from multiscale discretization of the canopy , 2005 .

[42]  S. Fleck,et al.  Functional role of forest diversity: Pros and cons of synthetic stands and across-site comparisons in established forests , 2009 .

[43]  Nate G. McDowell,et al.  Transpiration and stomatal conductance across a steep climate gradient in the southern Rocky Mountains , 2008 .

[44]  R. H. Brooks,et al.  Properties of Porous Media Affecting Fluid Flow , 1966 .

[45]  C. Leuschner,et al.  Nachbarschaftsbezogene Analyse der Kronenraumbesetzung von Esche, Hainbuche und Winterlinde in einem artenreichen Laubmischwald (Nationalpark Hainich, Thüringen) , 2003, Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt vereinigt mit Tharandter forstliches Jahrbuch.

[46]  D. Hölscher,et al.  Rainfall partitioning along a tree diversity gradient in a deciduous old‐growth forest in Central Germany , 2009 .

[47]  U. Hansen,et al.  Variation of pigment composition and antioxidative systems along the canopy light gradient in a mixed beech/oak forest: a comparative study on deciduous tree species differing in shade tolerance , 2002, Trees.

[48]  Jean-Philippe Gastellu-Etchegorry,et al.  DART: a 3D model for simulating satellite images and studying surface radiation budget , 2004 .

[49]  D. Hertel,et al.  No evidence of spatial root system segregation and elevated fine root biomass in multi-species temperate broad-leaved forests , 2009, Trees.

[50]  Weijun Shen,et al.  A model of stomatal conductance to quantify the relationship between leaf transpiration, microclimate and soil water stress , 2002 .

[51]  H. Coners.  Wasseraufnahme und artspezifische hydraulische Eigenschaften der Feinwurzeln von Buche, Eiche und Fichte: In situ-Messungen an Altbäumen , 2002 .

[52]  Brendan Mackey,et al.  Forest resilience, biodiversity, and climate change: a synthesis of the biodiversity/resilience/stability relationship in forest ecosystems , 2009 .

[53]  S. Korn.  Experimentelle Untersuchung der Wasseraufnahme und der hydraulischen Eigenschaften des Wurzelsystems von sechs heimischen Baumarten , 2004 .

[54]  B. Rewald.  Impact of climate change-induced drought on tree root hydraulic properties and competition belowground , 2008 .

[55]  Luca Ridolfi,et al.  The Effect of Vegetation Density on Canopy Sub-Layer Turbulence , 2004 .

[56]  I. Calder.  Forests and water—Ensuring forest benefits outweigh water costs , 2007 .

[57]  Pol Coppin,et al.  3D upscaling of transpiration from leaf to tree using ground-based LiDAR: Application on a Mediterranean Holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) tree , 2009 .

[58]  J. Grace,et al.  Ecophysiological controls over the net ecosystem exchange of mountain spruce stand. Comparison of the response in direct vs. diffuse solar radiation , 2007 .

[59]  M. Leuchner,et al.  Spectral multichannel monitoring of radiation within a mature mixed forest. , 2005, Plant biology.

[60]  S. Dupont,et al.  Coherent structures in canopy edge flow: a large-eddy simulation study , 2009, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[61]  I. E. Woodrow,et al.  A Model Predicting Stomatal Conductance and its Contribution to the Control of Photosynthesis under Different Environmental Conditions , 1987 .

[62]  G. Katul,et al.  Modelling sources and sinks of CO2, H2O and heat within a Siberian pine forest using three inverse methods , 2003 .

[63]  D. Baldocchi,et al.  Effects of diffuse radiation on canopy gas exchange processes in a forest ecosystem , 2008 .

[64]  Christian Reise,et al.  SatelLight: A WWW server which provides high quality daylight and solar radiation data for Western and Central Europe , 1998 .

[65]  J. Nash,et al.  River flow forecasting through conceptual models part I — A discussion of principles☆ , 1970 .

[66]  A. Granier,et al.  Water balance, transpiration and canopy conductance in two beech stands , 2000 .

[67]  D. Mackay,et al.  Competition for Light Between Individual Trees Lowers Reference Canopy Stomatal Conductance: Results from a Model , 2010 .

[68]  Ying Ping Wang,et al.  A comparison of three different canopy radiation models commonly used in plant modelling. , 2003, Functional plant biology : FPB.

[69]  C. Leuschner,et al.  Variability in radial sap flux density patterns and sapwood area among seven co-occurring temperate broad-leaved tree species. , 2008, Tree physiology.

[70]  J. Ehleringer,et al.  Calibration of thermal dissipation sap flow probes for ring- and diffuse-porous trees. , 2010, Tree physiology.

[71]  E. Schulze,et al.  Forest Diversity and Function , 2005 .

[72]  Jari Perttunen,et al.  Assessing the light environment for Scots pine in the functional-structural tree model LIGNUM , 2007 .

[73]  Marcel Fuchs,et al.  The distribution of leaf area, radiation, photosynthesis and transpiration in a Shamouti orange hedgerow orchard. Part I. Leaf area and radiation☆ , 1987 .

[74]  A. Lüscher,et al.  Diversity-interaction modeling: estimating contributions of species identities and interactions to ecosystem function. , 2009, Ecology.

[75]  Hui Xu,et al.  Knowledge and heuristic-based modeling of laser-scanned trees , 2007, TOGS.

[76]  S. Gayler,et al.  Agricultural Crop Models: Concepts of Resource Acquisition and Assimilate Partitioning , 2009 .