A motivational theory of life-span development.

This article had four goals. First, the authors identified a set of general challenges and questions that a life-span theory of development should address. Second, they presented a comprehensive account of their Motivational Theory of Life-Span Development. They integrated the model of optimization in primary and secondary control and the action-phase model of developmental regulation with their original life-span theory of control to present a comprehensive theory of development. Third, they reviewed the relevant empirical literature testing key propositions of the Motivational Theory of Life-Span Development. Finally, because the conceptual reach of their theory goes far beyond the current empirical base, they pointed out areas that deserve further and more focused empirical inquiry.

[1]  J. Wood.  Social change and human development: concepts and results , 2012 .

[2]  Jaime M. Arseneault,et al.  Shifting gears: Coping flexibility in children with and without ADHD , 2010 .

[3]  J. Heckhausen.  Globalization, Social Inequality, and Individual Agency in Human Development: Social Change for Better or Worse? , 2010 .

[4]  H. Blossfeld,et al.  Globalization, institutional filters and changing life course patterns in modern societies: A summary of the results from the GLOBALIFE Project , 2010 .

[5]  R. Silbereisen,et al.  Social change and human development : concept and results , 2010 .

[6]  J. Heckhausen,et al.  Can Ambition Help Overcome Social Inequality in the Transition to Adulthood? Individual Agency and Societal Opportunities in Germany and the United States , 2009 .

[7]  G. Miller,et al.  Depressive symptoms can be useful: self-regulatory and emotional benefits of dysphoric mood in adolescence. , 2009, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[8]  R. Perry,et al.  Primary and Secondary control StrategieS: imPlicationS for HealtH and Well-Being among older adultS , 2009 .

[9]  C. Wrosch,et al.  I'm better off than most other people: the role of social comparisons for coping with regret in young adulthood and old age. , 2008, Psychology and aging.

[10]  C. Haase,et al.  Goal Engagement during the School-Work Transition: Beneficial for All, Particularly for Girls. , 2008 .

[11]  H. Blossfeld,et al.  Life Courses in the Globalization Process: The Development of Social Inequalities in Modern Societies , 2008 .

[12]  C. Rusbult,et al.  Navigating personal and relational concerns: the quest for equilibrium. , 2008, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[13]  C. Welzel,et al.  Development, Freedom, and Rising Happiness: A Global Perspective (1981–2007) , 2008, Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

[14]  R. Schulz,et al.  Health-Engagement Control Strategies and 2-Year Changes in Older Adults' Physical Health , 2008, Psychological science.

[15]  K. Rothermund.  Hanging on and Letting Go in the Pursuit of Health Goals: Psychological Mechanisms to Cope with a Regulatory Dilemma , 2008 .

[16]  P. Gollwitzer,et al.  Motivation and volition in the course of action , 2008 .

[17]  H.-P. Blossfeld,et al.  Globalisierung und die Veränderung sozialer Ungleichheiten in modernen Gesellschaften , 2007 .

[18]  Michael Poulin,et al.  Stressful events compromise control strivings during a major life transition , 2007 .

[19]  Katariina Salmela-Aro,et al.  Personal Goals During Emerging Adulthood , 2007 .

[20]  E. Skinner.  Secondary control critiqued: is it secondary? is it control? Comment on Morling and Evered (2006). , 2007, Psychological bulletin.

[21]  G. Miller,et al.  You've Gotta Know When to Fold 'Em , 2007, Psychological science.

[22]  W. Hauck,et al.  Depressive Symptoms in Older African‐American and White Adults with Functional Difficulties: The Role of Control Strategies , 2007, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.

[23]  Jochen Brandtstädter,et al.  Action Perspectives on Human Development , 2007 .

[24]  U. Staudinger,et al.  Life Span Theory in Developmental Psychology , 2007 .

[25]  G. Miller,et al.  Regret intensity, diurnal cortisol secretion, and physical health in older individuals: evidence for directional effects and protective factors. , 2007, Psychology and aging.

[26]  R. Schulz,et al.  Physical health problems, depressive mood, and cortisol secretion in old age: buffer effects of health engagement control strategies. , 2007, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[27]  H. Blossfeld,et al.  Globalization, Uncertainty and Women's Careers: An International Comparison , 2007 .

[28]  H. Wahl,et al.  Age-related macular degeneration and change in psychological control: role of time since diagnosis and functional ability. , 2007, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[29]  M. Scheier,et al.  Giving Up on Unattainable Goals: Benefits for Health? , 2007, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[30]  R. Perry,et al.  Gender differences in use of primary and secondary control strategies in older adults with major health problems , 2007 .

[31]  Katariina Salmela-Aro,et al.  Personal project pursuit: Goals, action, and human flourishing. , 2007 .

[32]  Natalie C. Ebner,et al.  Developmental changes in personal goal orientation from young to late adulthood: from striving for gains to maintenance and prevention of losses. , 2006, Psychology and aging.

[33]  H. Blossfeld,et al.  Globalization, Uncertainty and Late Careers in Society , 2006 .

[34]  D. Isaacowitz,et al.  The effect of developmental regulation on visual attention: The example of the "biological clock" , 2006 .

[35]  Michèle M. Schlehofer,et al.  Dispositions, control strategies, and distress in the general public after the 2001 terrorist attack , 2006 .

[36]  N. Hall,et al.  Primary and Secondary Control in Achievement Settings: A Longitudinal Field Study of Academic Motivation, Emotions, and Performance1 , 2006 .

[37]  Richard Schulz,et al.  Effect of an In‐Home Occupational and Physical Therapy Intervention on Reducing Mortality in Functionally Vulnerable Older People: Preliminary Findings , 2006, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.

[38]  N. Steverink,et al.  Which social needs are important for subjective well-being? What happens to them with aging? , 2006, Psychology and aging.

[39]  Jutta Heckhausen,et al.  What Do They Want in Life?: The Life Goals of a Multi-Ethnic, Multi-Generational Sample of High School Seniors , 2006 .

[40]  N. Hall,et al.  ENHANCING PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CONTROL IN ACHIEVEMENT SETTINGS THROUGH WRITING-BASED ATTRIBUTIONAL RETRAINING , 2006 .

[41]  Ayelet Fishbach,et al.  PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Self-Control in Action : Implicit Dispositions Toward Goals and Away From Temptations , 2006 .

[42]  L. Gitlin,et al.  A Randomized Trial of a Multicomponent Home Intervention to Reduce Functional Difficulties in Older Adults , 2006, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.

[43]  B. Morling,et al.  Secondary control reviewed and defined. , 2006, Psychological bulletin.

[44]  B. Levy,et al.  Influence of Culture and Age on Control Beliefs: The Missing Link of Interdependence , 2006, International journal of aging & human development.

[45]  E. Greenglass,et al.  Perceived Social Support, Hassles, and Coping Among the Elderly , 2006 .

[46]  Carol H. Hoare.  Handbook of adult development and learning , 2006 .

[47]  John de Wit,et al.  Self-regulation in health behavior , 2006 .

[48]  H. Blossfeld,et al.  Globalization, Uncertainty and Youth in Society , 2006 .

[49]  M. Scheier,et al.  Regret and quality of life across the adult life span: the influence of disengagement and available future goals. , 2005, Psychology and aging.

[50]  J. Nurmi,et al.  Company matters: Goal-related social capital in the transition to working life , 2005 .

[51]  O. Tykocinski,et al.  Coping with disappointing outcomes: Retroactive pessimism and motivated inhibition of counterfactuals , 2005 .

[52]  O. Köller,et al.  Der Übergang von der Schule in die berufliche Erstausbildung: wer die Sorgen scheut, wird von ihnen ereilt , 2005 .

[53]  R. Perry,et al.  Optimistic social comparisons of older adults low in primary control: a prospective analysis of hospitalization and mortality. , 2005, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[54]  A. Columbus.  Advances in Psychology Research , 2005 .

[55]  P. Baltes,et al.  Managing life through personal goals: intergoal facilitation and intensity of goal pursuit in younger and older adulthood. , 2005, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[56]  G. Affleck,et al.  Appraisal and adaptation among women with impaired fertility , 1990, Cognitive Therapy and Research.

[57]  B. Compas,et al.  Interaction of cognitive appraisals of stressful events and coping: Testing the goodness of fit hypothesis , 1987, Cognitive Therapy and Research.

[58]  Karl Ulrich Mayer,et al.  De-Standardization of the Life Course: What it Might Mean? And if it Means Anything, Whether it Actually Took Place? , 2005 .

[59]  M. Lachman,et al.  The Adaptive Value of Feeling in Control during Midlife. , 2019 .

[60]  M. Riediger,et al.  Interference and Facilitation among Personal Goals: Differential Associations with Subjective Well-Being and Persistent Goal Pursuit , 2004, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[61]  K. Rook,et al.  Interpersonal control strivings and vulnerability to negative social exchanges in later life. , 2004, Psychology and aging.

[62]  H. Wahl,et al.  The role of primary and secondary control in adaptation to age-related vision loss: a study of older adults with macular degeneration. , 2004, Psychology and aging.

[63]  B. Buunk,et al.  The effect of social comparison information on the life satisfaction of frail older persons. , 2004, Psychology and aging.

[64]  R. Schulz,et al.  Health Stresses and Depressive Symptomatology in the Elderly , 2004 .

[65]  K. Boerner,et al.  Adaptation to disability among middle-aged and older adults: the role of assimilative and accommodative coping. , 2004, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[66]  A. Voss,et al.  Perception of danger signals: the role of control. , 2004, Experimental psychology.

[67]  R. Kessler,et al.  How healthy are we?: A national study of well-being at midlife. , 2004 .

[68]  K. Rothermund,et al.  Coping with deficits and losses in later life: from compensatory action to accommodation. , 2003, Psychology and aging.

[69]  S. Kitayama,et al.  American and Japanese Women Use Different Coping Strategies During Normal Pregnancy , 2003, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[70]  C. Carver,et al.  Adaptive Self-Regulation of Unattainable Goals: Goal Disengagement, Goal Reengagement, and Subjective Well-Being , 2003, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[71]  A. Mcquillen,et al.  Contributions of disease severity and perceptions of primary and secondary control to the prediction of psychosocial adjustment to Parkinson's disease. , 2003, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[72]  Arie W Kruglanski,et al.  Leading us not unto temptation: momentary allurements elicit overriding goal activation. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[73]  Ulman Lindenberger,et al.  Understanding Human Development: Dialogues With Lifespan Psychology , 2003 .

[74]  C. Carver,et al.  The Importance of Goal Disengagement in Adaptive Self-Regulation: When Giving Up is Beneficial , 2003 .

[75]  J. Heckhausen.  The Future of Lifespan Developmental Psychology: Perspectives from Control Theory , 2003 .

[76]  J. Weisz,et al.  Primary and secondary control enhancement training for youth depression: Applying the deployment-focused model of treatment development and testing. , 2003 .

[77]  H. Markus,et al.  Models of agency: sociocultural diversity in the construction of action. , 2003, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation.

[78]  Alan E. Kazdin,et al.  Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents , 2003 .

[79]  Arie W Kruglanski,et al.  Forgetting all else: on the antecedents and consequences of goal shielding. , 2002, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[80]  P. Baltes,et al.  The adaptiveness of selection, optimization, and compensation as strategies of life management: evidence from a preference study on proverbs. , 2002, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[81]  Richard Schulz,et al.  Health stresses and depressive symptomatology in the elderly: the importance of health engagement control strategies. , 2002, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[82]  Jennifer Duke,et al.  Giving up and replacing activities in response to illness. , 2002, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[83]  J. Heckhausen,et al.  Perceived control of life regrets: good for young and bad for old adults. , 2002, Psychology and aging.

[84]  Alexandra M Freund,et al.  Life-management strategies of selection, optimization, and compensation: measurement by self-report and construct validity. , 2002, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[85]  M. Tomasik,et al.  Get an Apprenticeship before School Is Out: How German Adolescents Adjust Vocational Aspirations When Getting Close to a Developmental Deadline , 2002 .

[86]  J. Bynner,et al.  Social exclusion and the transition from school to work: The case of young people not in education, employment, or training (NEET) , 2002 .

[87]  Jochen Brandtstädter,et al.  The Life-Course Dynamics of Goal Pursuit and Goal Adjustment: A Two-Process Framework , 2002 .

[88]  Richard M. Lerner,et al.  Concepts and theories of human development, 3rd ed. , 2002 .

[89]  K. Rothermund,et al.  Nociceptive sensitivity and control: hypo- and hyperalgesia under two different modes of coping. , 2002, Experimental psychology.

[90]  J. Grusec,et al.  Effects of interpersonal control, perspective taking, and attributions on older mothers' and adult daughters' satisfaction with their helping relationships. , 2001, Journal of family psychology : JFP : journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association.

[91]  J. Jacobs,et al.  Beyond unfavorable thinking: the illness cognition questionnaire for chronic diseases. , 2001, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[92]  K. Salmela‐Aro,et al.  Goal reconstruction and depressive symptoms during the transition to motherhood: evidence from two cross-lagged longitudinal studies. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[93]  F. Lang,et al.  Regulation of social relationships in later adulthood. , 2001, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[94]  Alison J. Longley,et al.  Depression is an adaptation. , 2001, Archives of general psychiatry.

[95]  W. Fleeson,et al.  Developmental regulation before and after a developmental deadline: the sample case of "biological clock" for childbearing. , 2001, Psychology and aging.

[96]  D. Ogilvie,et al.  A Comparison of Personal Project Motives in Three Age Groups , 2001 .

[97]  F. Lang,et al.  Perceived control over development and subjective well-being: differential benefits across adulthood. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[98]  Kennon M. Sheldon,et al.  Getting older, getting better? Personal strivings and psychological maturity across the life span. , 2001, Developmental psychology.

[99]  B. Compas,et al.  Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. , 2001, Psychological bulletin.

[100]  H. Markus,et al.  Possible Selves , 2001 .

[101]  E. Deci,et al.  The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , 2000 .

[102]  M. Lachman,et al.  Primary and secondary control strategies for managing health and financial stress across adulthood. , 2000, Psychology and aging.

[103]  G. Smith,et al.  The effects of interpersonal and personal agency on perceived control and psychological well-being in adulthood. , 2000, The Gerontologist.

[104]  Jutta Heckhausen,et al.  Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Motivation , 2000 .

[105]  P. Kennedy,et al.  Ranking the criteria for assessing quality of life after disability: Evidence for priority shifting among long-term spinal cord injury survivors. , 2000 .

[106]  Charles S. Carver,et al.  On the structure of behavioral self-regulation. , 2000 .

[107]  P. Pintrich,et al.  Handbook of self-regulation , 2000 .

[108]  J. Heckhausen.  Developmental regulation across the life span : An action-phase model of engagement and disengagement with developmental goals , 2000 .

[109]  Walter J. Perrig,et al.  Control of human behavior, mental processes and consciousness : essays in honor of the 60th birthday of August Flammer , 2000 .

[110]  A. Freund,et al.  The interplay of work and family in young and middle adulthood , 2000 .

[111]  Jutta Heckhausen,et al.  Motivational psychology of human development : developing motivation and motivating development , 2000 .

[112]  Paul B. Baltes,et al.  The orchestration of selection, optimization and compensation: An action–theoretical conceptualization of a theory of developmental regulation. , 2000 .

[113]  E. Deci,et al.  Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. , 2000, The American psychologist.

[114]  Lisa G. Aspinwall,et al.  Optimism and Self-Mastery Predict More Rapid Disengagement from Unsolvable Tasks in the Presence of Alternatives , 1999 .

[115]  J. Heckhausen,et al.  Control processes before and after passing a developmental deadline: Activation and deactivation of intimate relationship goals , 1999 .

[116]  R. Schulz,et al.  The primacy of primary control is a human universal: a reply to Gould's (1999) critique of the life-span theory of control. , 1999, Psychological review.

[117]  S. Gould.  A critique of Heckhausen and Schulz's (1995) life-span theory of control from a cross-cultural perspective. , 1999 .

[118]  J. Weisz,et al.  Culture, coping, and context: primary and secondary control among Thai and American youth. , 1999, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[119]  R. Schulz,et al.  Aging, culture and control: setting a new research agenda. , 1999, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[120]  R. Perry,et al.  Self-perceptions of health: a prospective analysis of mortality, control, and health. , 1999, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[121]  L. Carstensen,et al.  Taking time seriously. A theory of socioemotional selectivity. , 1999, The American psychologist.

[122]  K. Pakenham.  Adjustment to multiple sclerosis: application of a stress and coping model. , 1999, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[123]  R. Schulz,et al.  Selectivity in life-span development: Biological and societal canalizations and individuals' developmental goals , 1999 .

[124]  Jochen Brandtstädter,et al.  Intentional self-development through adulthood and later life: Tenacious pursuit and flexible adjustment of goals. , 1999 .

[125]  Oliver C. Schultheiss,et al.  The pursuit of personal goals: A motivational approach to well-being and life adjustment. , 1999 .

[126]  D. R. Lehman,et al.  Is there a universal need for positive self-regard? , 1999, Psychological review.

[127]  Jutta Heckhausen,et al.  Developmental Regulation in Adulthood: Age-Normative and Sociostructural Constraints as Adaptive Challenges , 1998 .

[128]  C. Carver,et al.  On the Self-Regulation of Behavior , 1998 .

[129]  Wilmar B. Schaufeli,et al.  Active coping and need for control as moderators of the job demand-control model : effects on burnout , 1998 .

[130]  R. Schulz,et al.  Developmental regulation in adulthood: Optimization in primary and secondary control - A multiscale questionnaire (OPS-Scales). Technical report , 1998 .

[131]  Control and the Elderly: “Goodness-of-Fit” , 1997, International journal of aging & human development.

[132]  R. Schulz,et al.  Emotion and Control: A Life-Span Perspective , 1997, Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics.

[133]  J. Heckhausen.  Developmental regulation across adulthood: primary and secondary control of age-related challenges. , 1997, Developmental psychology.

[134]  N. Eisenberg,et al.  Coping with Stress , 1997 .

[135]  J. Weisz,et al.  Describing boys' coping with homesickness using a two-process model of control , 1997 .

[136]  J. Weisz,et al.  "You can try or you can just give up": the impact of perceived control and coping style on childhood homesickness. , 1997, Developmental psychology.

[137]  E. Skinner.  A guide to constructs of control. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[138]  R. Schulz,et al.  A life span model of successful aging. , 1996, The American psychologist.

[139]  Siegwart Lindenberg.  Continuities in the theory of social production functions , 1996 .

[140]  J. Weisz,et al.  Determinants and consequences of children's coping in the medical setting: conceptualization, review, and critique. , 1995, Psychological bulletin.

[141]  Shelley E. Taylor,et al.  Effects of mindset on positive illusions. , 1995, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[142]  R. Schulz,et al.  A life-span theory of control. , 1995, Psychological review.

[143]  P. Baltes,et al.  Selective optimization with compensation: Life-span perspectives on successful human development , 1995 .

[144]  Lars Bäckman,et al.  Compensating for psychological deficits and declines: Managing losses and promoting gains. , 1995 .

[145]  S. Thompson,et al.  Primary versus secondary and central versus consequence-related control in HIV-positive men. , 1994, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[146]  K. Rothermund,et al.  Self-percepts of control in middle and later adulthood: buffering losses by rescaling goals. , 1994, Psychology and aging.

[147]  Frieder R. Lang,et al.  Close emotional relationships in late life: further support for proactive aging in the social domain. , 1994, Psychology and aging.

[148]  Julius Kuhl,et al.  Volition and Personality: Action Versus State Orientation , 1994 .

[149]  J. Weisz,et al.  Primary and secondary control among children undergoing medical procedures: adjustment as a function of coping style. , 1994, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[150]  Raymond P. Perry,et al.  Enhancing achievement motivation and performance in college students: An attributional retraining perspective , 1993 .

[151]  J. Brunstein,et al.  Personal goals and subjective well-being: A longitudinal study. , 1993 .

[152]  Robert J. Crutcher,et al.  The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. , 1993 .

[153]  R. Schulz,et al.  Optimisation by Selection and Compensation: Balancing Primary and Secondary Control in Life Span Development , 1993 .

[154]  J. Nurmi.  Adolescent Development in an Age-graded Context: The Role of Personal Beliefs, Goals, and Strategies in the Tackling of Developmental Tasks and Standards , 1993 .

[155]  S. Thompson,et al.  Maintaining perceptions of control: finding perceived control in low-control circumstances. , 1993, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[156]  Jari-Erik Nurmi,et al.  Age Differences in Adult Life Goals, Concerns, and Their Temporal Extension: A Life Course Approach to Future-oriented Motivation , 1992 .

[157]  Lars Bäckman,et al.  Psychological compensation: a theoretical framework. , 1992, Psychological bulletin.

[158]  H. Papoušek.  Experimental studies of appetitional behavior in human newborns and infants , 1992 .

[159]  ROSEMARIE NAVE-HERZ,et al.  Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 1989 , 1992 .

[160]  M. Maehr.  Advances in Motivation and Achievement , 1991 .

[161]  E. Higgins,et al.  Handbook of motivation and cognition : foundations of social behavior , 1991 .

[162]  H. Markus,et al.  Possible Selves across the Life Span , 1991 .

[163]  P. Baltes,et al.  Perceived controllability of expected psychological change across adulthood and old age. , 1991, Journal of gerontology.

[164]  Jutta Heckhausen,et al.  Motivation and action , 1991 .

[165]  T. Salthouse.  Expertise as the circumvention of human processing limitations. , 1991 .

[166]  H. Heckhausen,et al.  Deliberative and implemental mind-sets: Cognitive tuning toward congruous thoughts and information , 1990 .

[167]  P. Baltes,et al.  Psychological perspectives on successful aging: The model of selective optimization with compensation. , 1990 .

[168]  J. Brandtstädter,et al.  Tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal adjustment: explication and age-related analysis of assimilative and accommodative strategies of coping. , 1990, Psychology and aging.

[169]  E. Band,et al.  Children's coping with diabetes: understanding the role of cognitive development. , 1990, Journal of pediatric psychology.

[170]  P. Gollwitzer.  Action phases and mind-sets , 1990 .

[171]  Paul B. Baltes,et al.  Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences , 1990 .

[172]  C. Carver,et al.  Origins and Functions of Positive and Negative Affect: A Control-Process View. , 1990 .

[173]  Peter M. Gollwitzer,et al.  Effects of deliberative and implemental mind-sets on illusion of control. , 1989 .

[174]  Paul B. Baltes,et al.  Gains and losses in development throughout adulthood as perceived by different adult age groups. , 1989 .

[175]  Y. I. Kim.  [General systems theory]. , 1989, Taehan kanho. The Korean nurse.

[176]  C. Carver,et al.  Cognitive Concomitants of Depression: A Further Examination of the Roles of Generalization, High Standards, and Self-Criticism , 1988 .

[177]  R. Schulz,et al.  Peak performance and age among superathletes: track and field, swimming, baseball, tennis, and golf. , 1988, Journal of gerontology.

[178]  D. Simonton,et al.  Age and outstanding achievement: what do we know after a century of research? , 1988, Psychological bulletin.

[179]  D. Watson,et al.  Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[180]  N. Frijda.  The laws of emotion. , 1988, The American psychologist.

[181]  M. Powell Lawton,et al.  Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics , 1988, Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

[182]  Jürgen Beckmann,et al.  Deliberative versus implemental states of mind: The issue of impartiality in predecisional and postdecisional information processing , 1987 .

[183]  J. Rowe,et al.  Human aging: usual and successful. , 1987, Science.

[184]  H. Heckhausen,et al.  Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind , 1987 .

[185]  B. Compas,et al.  Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence. , 1987, Psychological bulletin.

[186]  P. Linville,et al.  Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. , 1987, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[187]  Paul B. Baltes,et al.  Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology : On the dynamics between growth and decline , 1987 .

[188]  Robert A Emmons.  Personal strivings: An approach to personality and subjective well-being. , 1986 .

[189]  T. Salthouse.  A Theory of Cognitive Aging , 1985 .

[190]  J. Kuhl.  Volitional Mediators of Cognition-Behavior Consistency: Self-Regulatory Processes and Action Versus , 1985 .

[191]  J. Beckmann,et al.  Action control : from cognition to behavior , 1985 .

[192]  H. Azuma.  Secondary control as a heterogeneous category. , 1984 .

[193]  John R. Weisz,et al.  Standing out and standing in: The psychology of control in America and Japan. , 1984 .

[194]  D. Ford,et al.  Assessment of personal goal hierarchies. , 1983 .

[195]  J. Weisz,et al.  Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. , 1982 .

[196]  A. Decasper,et al.  Contingencies of stimulation: Effects on learning and emotion in neonates , 1981 .

[197]  N. Busch-Rossnagel,et al.  Individuals as producers of their development : a life-span perspective , 1981 .

[198]  P. Baltes,et al.  Life Span Development and Behavior , 1978 .

[199]  E. Klinger.  Meaning and Void: Inner Experience and the Incentives in People’s Lives , 1978 .

[200]  R. Binstock,et al.  Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences. , 1978 .

[201]  G. Wilson,et al.  Cognitive Behavior Therapy , 1978 .

[202]  Richard M. Lerner,et al.  Concepts and Theories of Human Development , 1976 .

[203]  J. Watson.  Smiling, cooing, and "the game." , 1972 .

[204]  J. Watson,et al.  Reactions to response-contingent stimulation in early infancy. , 1972 .

[205]  W B Bean,et al.  Age and Achievement. , 1960 .

[206]  Devendra Singh,et al.  Preference for bar pressing to obtain reward over freeloading in rats and children. , 1970 .

[207]  P. Baltes,et al.  Life-Span Developmental Psychology: Research and Theory , 1970 .

[208]  Willis F. Overton,et al.  Models of Development and Theories of Development , 1970 .

[209]  R. W. White.  Motivation reconsidered: the concept of competence. , 1959, Psychological review.

[210]  Welker Wi,et al.  Some determinants of play and exploration in chimpanzees. , 1956 .

[211]  W. Welker,et al.  Some determinants of play and exploration in chimpanzees. , 1956, Journal of comparative and physiological psychology.

[212]  R. Havighurst.  Human development and education , 1953 .

[213]  H F HARLOW,et al.  Mice, monkeys, men, and motives. , 1953, Psychological review.

[214]  Robert J. Havighurst,et al.  Developmental tasks and education , 1943 .

[215]  I. Sigel,et al.  HANDBOOK OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY , 2006 .

[216]  Age and the Life Course , 2022, Aging, Society, and the Life Course.

[217]  E.,et al.  Self-Discrepancy : A Theory Relating Self and Affect , 2022 .