Seasonal occurrence, removal efficiencies and preliminary risk assessment of multiple classes of organic UV filters in wastewater treatment plants.

Organic ultraviolet (UV) filters are applied widely in personal care products (PCPs), but the distribution and risks of these compounds in the marine environment are not well known. In this study, the occurrence and removal efficiencies of 12 organic UV filters in five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) equipped with different treatment levels in Hong Kong, South China, were investigated during one year and a preliminary environmental risk assessment was carried out. Using a newly developed simultaneous multiclass quantification liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method, butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane (BMDM), 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone (BP-1), benzophenone-3 (BP-3), benzophenone-4 (BP-4) and 2-ethyl-hexyl-4-trimethoxycinnamate (EHMC) were frequently (≥80%) detected in both influent and effluent with mean concentrations ranging from 23 to 1290 ng/L and 18-1018 ng/L, respectively; less than 2% of samples contained levels greater than 1000 ng/L. Higher concentrations of these frequently detected compounds were found during the wet/summer season, except for BP-4, which was the most abundant compound detected in all samples in terms of total mass. The target compounds behaved differently depending on the treatment level in WWTPs; overall, removal efficiencies were greater after secondary treatment when compared to primary treatment with >55% and <20% of compounds showing high removal (defined as >70% removal), respectively. Reverse osmosis was found to effectively eliminate UV filters from effluent (>99% removal). A preliminary risk assessment indicated that BP-3 and EHMC discharged from WWTPs may pose high risk to fishes in the local environment.

[1]  A. Vlessidis,et al.  Application of a novel chemometric approach to the determination of aqueous photolysis rates of organic compounds in natural waters. , 2007, Talanta.

[2]  K. Fent,et al.  Global gene expression profile induced by the UV-filter 2-ethyl-hexyl-4-trimethoxycinnamate (EHMC) in zebrafish (Danio rerio). , 2011, Environmental pollution.

[3]  B. van der Burg,et al.  Estrogenic activity of UV filters determined by an in vitro reporter gene assay and an in vivo transgenic zebrafish assay , 2002, Archives of Toxicology.

[4]  D. Barceló,et al.  Environmental risk assessment of pharmaceutical residues in wastewater effluents, surface waters and sediments. , 2006, Talanta.

[5]  Verena Christen,et al.  Effects of the UV-filter 2-ethyl-hexyl-4-trimethoxycinnamate (EHMC) on expression of genes involved in hormonal pathways in fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) and link to vitellogenin induction and histology. , 2011, Aquatic toxicology.

[6]  R. Kookana,et al.  Photostability of the UV filter benzophenone-3 and its effect on the photodegradation of benzotriazole in water , 2011 .

[7]  J. D. Johnson,et al.  The role of suspended particles in ultraviolet disinfection , 1983 .

[8]  M. Henseler,et al.  Endocrine Active UV Filters : Developmental Toxicity and Exposure Through Breast Milk , 2008 .

[9]  U. von Gunten,et al.  Reactions of chlorine with inorganic and organic compounds during water treatment-Kinetics and mechanisms: a critical review. , 2008, Water research.

[10]  Laura A. MacManus-Spencer,et al.  Aqueous photolysis of the organic ultraviolet filter chemical octyl methoxycinnamate. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[11]  R. Danovaro,et al.  Sunscreens Cause Coral Bleaching by Promoting Viral Infections , 2008, Environmental health perspectives.

[12]  Amparo Salvador,et al.  UV filters : From sunscreens to human body and the environment , 2007 .

[13]  P. Kunz,et al.  Estrogenic activity of ternary UV filter mixtures in fish (Pimephales promelas) - an analysis with nonlinear isobolograms. , 2009, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[14]  G. B. Buck Louis,et al.  Urinary concentrations of benzophenone-type UV filters in U.S. women and their association with endometriosis. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[15]  R. Kookana,et al.  Biodegradation of the ultraviolet filter benzophenone‐3 under different redox conditions , 2012, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[16]  D. Schlenk,et al.  Estrogenic activity and reproductive effects of the UV-filter oxybenzone (2-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl-methanone) in fish. , 2008, Aquatic toxicology.

[17]  Guang-Guo Ying,et al.  Occurrence and removal of benzotriazoles and ultraviolet filters in a municipal wastewater treatment plant. , 2012, Environmental pollution.

[18]  T. Poiger,et al.  Occurrence of some organic UV filters in wastewater, in surface waters, and in fish from Swiss Lakes. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[19]  D. Barceló,et al.  Rejection of pharmaceuticals in nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membrane drinking water treatment. , 2008, Water research.

[20]  N. Negreira,et al.  Study of some UV filters stability in chlorinated water and identification of halogenated by-products by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. , 2008, Journal of chromatography. A.

[21]  D. Grandjean,et al.  Fate and removal of polycyclic musks, UV filters and biocides during wastewater treatment. , 2006, Water research.

[22]  Peter Schmid,et al.  Occurrence of UV filters 4-methylbenzylidene camphor and octocrylene in fish from various Swiss rivers with inputs from wastewater treatment plants. , 2006, Environmental science & technology.

[23]  J. Oehlmann,et al.  Ecotoxicological effect characterisation of widely used organic UV filters. , 2012, Environmental pollution.

[24]  M. S. Miranda,et al.  The degradation products of UV filters in aqueous and chlorinated aqueous solutions. , 2012, Water research.

[25]  E. Wert,et al.  Removal of EDCs and Pharmaceuticals in Drinking and Reuse Treatment Processes , 2007 .

[26]  K. Fent,et al.  Simultaneous trace determination of nine organic UV-absorbing compounds (UV filters) in environmental samples. , 2008, Journal of chromatography. A.

[27]  M. Miyazaki,et al.  Occurrence and profiles of organic sun-blocking agents in surface waters and sediments in Japanese rivers and lakes. , 2011, Environmental pollution.

[28]  N. Negreira,et al.  Assessment of benzophenone-4 reactivity with free chlorine by liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. , 2012, Analytica chimica acta.

[29]  J. Ryu,et al.  Simultaneous determination of benzophenone-type UV filters in water and soil by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. , 2006, Journal of chromatography. A.

[30]  Rolf Altenburger,et al.  Photostability and phytotoxicity of selected sunscreen agents and their degradation mixtures in water , 2009, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[31]  A. Verliefde.  Rejection of organic micropollutants by high pressure membranes (NF/RO) , 2008 .

[32]  Marta Carballa,et al.  Removal of cosmetic ingredients and pharmaceuticals in sewage primary treatment. , 2005, Water research.

[33]  Francisco Omil,et al.  Pre-treatment of hospital wastewater by coagulation-flocculation and flotation. , 2009, Bioresource technology.

[34]  Keshab Sharma,et al.  A pilot study for wastewater reclamation and reuse with MBR/RO and MF/RO systems , 2007 .

[35]  P. López-Mahía,et al.  Multiclass determination of sunscreen chemicals in water samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. , 2008, Analytical chemistry.

[36]  Damià Barceló,et al.  First determination of UV filters in marine mammals. Octocrylene levels in Franciscana dolphins. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[37]  C. Morlay,et al.  The removal of endocrine disrupting compounds, pharmaceutically activated compounds and cyanobacterial toxins during drinking water preparation using activated carbon--a review. , 2012, The Science of the total environment.

[38]  Michael Oelgemöller,et al.  Photostability of sunscreens , 2012 .

[39]  Hideshige Takada,et al.  Removal of selected pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during sand filtration and ozonation at a municipal sewage treatment plant. , 2007, Water research.

[40]  T. Albanis,et al.  Aqueous photolysis of the sunscreen agent octyl-dimethyl-p-aminobenzoic acid. Formation of disinfection byproducts in chlorinated swimming pool water. , 2003, Journal of chromatography. A.

[41]  M. Schlumpf,et al.  In vitro and in vivo estrogenicity of UV screens. , 2001, Environmental health perspectives.