Gastric cancer: Epidemiology, risk factors and prevention strategies

Gastric cancer (GC) is a global health problem, with more than 1 million people newly diagnosed with GC worldwide each year. GC is more prevalent in less developed countries than in more developed countries. About half of all GC cases worldwide occur in East Asia, notably China. Globally, overall incidence rates of GC are declining, which is potentially attributed to a decrease in Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection and the use of refrigeration to preserve foods rather than salt. GC is a multifactorial disease, and its occurrence and development were impacted by environmental and genetic factors. H. pylori infection is the primary risk factor for GC, especially for non-cardia. The prognosis of GC is poor due to stages at the first diagnosis. The 5-year survival rate is less than 10% when patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage, but the rate is as high as 85% if patients are detected at an earlier stage. Endoscopic screening can potentially prevent GC by early diagnosis and early treatment and has been widely adopted in screening programs in East Asian countries, such as Japan and Korea. This review summarizes updated epidemiological aspects, risk factors, and prevention strategies of GC in recent years to help researchers determine the most effective intervention strategies for reducing risk of GC.

[1]  E. Giovannucci,et al.  Initial results from a multi-center population-based cluster randomized trial of esophageal and gastric cancer screening in China , 2020, BMC Gastroenterology.

[2]  M. Luftig,et al.  The Role of EBV-Induced Hypermethylation in Gastric Cancer Tumorigenesis , 2020, Viruses.

[3]  Wanqing Chen,et al.  Classifying risk level of gastric cancer: Evaluation of questionnaire-based prediction model , 2020, Chinese journal of cancer research = Chung-kuo yen cheng yen chiu.

[4]  Hongbing Shen,et al.  Genetic risk, incident gastric cancer, and healthy lifestyle: a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies and prospective cohort study. , 2020, The Lancet. Oncology.

[5]  D. Graham,et al.  Mass eradication of Helicobacter pylori to reduce gastric cancer incidence and mortality: a long-term cohort study on Matsu Islands , 2020, Gut.

[6]  Dong-Man Ye,et al.  Suppression of Helicobacter pylori infection by daily cranberry intake: A double‐blind, randomized, placebo‐controlled trial , 2020, Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology.

[7]  H. Too,et al.  Evaluating the Use of microRNA Blood Tests for Gastric Cancer Screening in a Stratified Population-Level Screening Program: An Early Model-Based Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. , 2020, Value in health : the journal of the International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research.

[8]  J. Mosnier,et al.  A panel of stomach‐specific biomarkers (GastroPanel®) for the diagnosis of atrophic gastritis: A prospective, multicenter study in a low gastric cancer incidence area , 2020, Helicobacter.

[9]  J. Machlowska,et al.  Gastric Cancer: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Classification, Genomic Characteristics and Treatment Strategies , 2020, International journal of molecular sciences.

[10]  B. Li,et al.  Effectiveness of one-time endoscopic screening programme in prevention of upper gastrointestinal cancer in China: a multicentre population-based cohort study , 2020, Gut.

[11]  H. El‐Serag,et al.  Burden of Gastric Cancer. , 2020, Clinical gastroenterology and hepatology : the official clinical practice journal of the American Gastroenterological Association.

[12]  A. Tavakoli,et al.  Association between Epstein-Barr virus infection and gastric cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis , 2020, BMC Cancer.

[13]  Wenjuan Wang Interpretation of the Diabetes Prevention and Control Action of the Healthy China Initiative 2019−2030 , 2020, China CDC weekly.

[14]  M. Vieth,et al.  Effect of Helicobacter pylori on gastrointestinal microbiota: a population-based study in Linqu, a high-risk area of gastric cancer , 2019, Gut.

[15]  M. Gail,et al.  Effects of Helicobacter pylori treatment and vitamin and garlic supplementation on gastric cancer incidence and mortality: follow-up of a randomized intervention trial , 2019, BMJ.

[16]  C. la Vecchia,et al.  Gastric cancer: epidemiology, biology, and prevention: a mini review. , 2019, European journal of cancer prevention : the official journal of the European Cancer Prevention Organisation.

[17]  Hongbing Shen,et al.  Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies and functional assays decipher susceptibility genes for gastric cancer in Chinese populations , 2019, Gut.

[18]  Wei Chen,et al.  Gender Differences in Gastric Cancer Survival: 99,922 Cases Based on the SEER Database , 2019, Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery.

[19]  Jie He,et al.  Participation and yield of a population-based colorectal cancer screening programme in China , 2018, Gut.

[20]  S. Hayakawa,et al.  Gut microbiome can be restored without adverse events after Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy in teenagers , 2018, Helicobacter.

[21]  A. Jemal,et al.  Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries , 2018, CA: a cancer journal for clinicians.

[22]  Yi-Chun Yeh,et al.  The impacts of H. pylori virulence factors on the development of gastroduodenal diseases , 2018, Journal of Biomedical Science.

[23]  R. Liu,et al.  Endoscopic Screening in Asian Countries Is Associated With Reduced Gastric Cancer Mortality: A Meta-analysis and Systematic Review. , 2018, Gastroenterology.

[24]  W. Xu,et al.  Tumor heterogeneity of gastric cancer: From the perspective of tumor-initiating cell , 2018, World journal of gastroenterology.

[25]  Deng-Chyang Wu,et al.  Helicobacter pylori eradication with bismuth quadruple therapy leads to dysbiosis of gut microbiota with an increased relative abundance of Proteobacteria and decreased relative abundances of Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria , 2018, Helicobacter.

[26]  C. Hamashima Update version of the Japanese Guidelines for Gastric Cancer Screening. , 2018, Japanese journal of clinical oncology.

[27]  P. Rosenberg,et al.  The Changing Face of Noncardia Gastric Cancer Incidence Among US Non-Hispanic Whites , 2018, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[28]  Ning Wang,et al.  Changing cancer survival in China during 2003-15: a pooled analysis of 17 population-based cancer registries. , 2018, The Lancet. Global health.

[29]  I. Ellis,et al.  Germline pathogenic variants in PALB2 and other cancer-predisposing genes in families with hereditary diffuse gastric cancer without CDH1 mutation: a whole-exome sequencing study , 2018, The lancet. Gastroenterology & hepatology.

[30]  Melissa Matz,et al.  Global surveillance of trends in cancer survival 2000–14 (CONCORD-3): analysis of individual records for 37 513 025 patients diagnosed with one of 18 cancers from 322 population-based registries in 71 countries , 2018, The Lancet.

[31]  E. Kuipers,et al.  Endoscopic screening for gastric cancer: A cost-utility analysis for countries with an intermediate gastric cancer risk , 2018, United European gastroenterology journal.

[32]  C. Hamashima Cancer screening guidelines and policy making: 15 years of experience in cancer screening guideline development in Japan , 2018, Japanese journal of clinical oncology.

[33]  Z. Kavosi,et al.  Risk Factors for Gastric Cancer: A Systematic Review , 2018, Asian Pacific journal of cancer prevention : APJCP.

[34]  Chih-Wei Yen,et al.  Increased Abundance of Clostridium and Fusobacterium in Gastric Microbiota of Patients with Gastric Cancer in Taiwan , 2018, Scientific Reports.

[35]  K. Goh,et al.  Dysbiosis of the microbiome in gastric carcinogenesis , 2017, Scientific Reports.

[36]  K. Fujimori,et al.  Effect on Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy against gastric cancer in Japan , 2017, Helicobacter.

[37]  P. Ye,et al.  Gastric Cancer Mortality Trends in China (2006-2013) Reveal Increasing Mortality in Young Subjects. , 2017, Anticancer research.

[38]  Jie He,et al.  Evaluating efficacy of screening for upper gastrointestinal cancer in China: a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial , 2017, Chinese journal of cancer research = Chung-kuo yen cheng yen chiu.

[39]  K. Sugano,et al.  Impact of health insurance coverage for Helicobacter pylori gastritis on the trends in eradication therapy in Japan: retrospective observational study and simulation study based on real-world data , 2017, BMJ Open.

[40]  I. Choi,et al.  Effectiveness of the Korean National Cancer Screening Program in Reducing Gastric Cancer Mortality. , 2017, Gastroenterology.

[41]  Jun Yu,et al.  A global burden of gastric cancer: the major impact of China , 2017, Expert review of gastroenterology & hepatology.

[42]  Yang Zhang,et al.  Helicobacter pylori antibody responses in association with eradication outcome and recurrence: a population-based intervention trial with 7.3-year follow-up in China , 2017, Chinese journal of cancer research = Chung-kuo yen cheng yen chiu.

[43]  X. Shu,et al.  Fruit and vegetable consumption, Helicobacter pylori antibodies, and gastric cancer risk: A pooled analysis of prospective studies in China, Japan, and Korea , 2017, International journal of cancer.

[44]  J. Ji,et al.  The challenge of screening for early gastric cancer in China , 2016, The Lancet.

[45]  A. Jemal,et al.  Cancer statistics in China, 2015 , 2016, CA: a cancer journal for clinicians.

[46]  M. Inoue,et al.  Prediction of the 10‐year probability of gastric cancer occurrence in the Japanese population: the JPHC study cohort II , 2016, International journal of cancer.

[47]  A. Gavin,et al.  Survival for oesophageal, stomach and small intestine cancers in Europe 1999-2007: Results from EUROCARE-5. , 2015, European journal of cancer.

[48]  M. Vieth,et al.  A large randomised controlled intervention trial to prevent gastric cancer by eradication of Helicobacter pylori in Linqu County, China: baseline results and factors affecting the eradication , 2015, Gut.

[49]  R. Seruca,et al.  Familial gastric cancer: genetic susceptibility, pathology, and implications for management. , 2015, The Lancet. Oncology.

[50]  D. Forman,et al.  The fight against gastric cancer - the IARC Working Group report. , 2014, Best practice & research. Clinical gastroenterology.

[51]  R. Seruca,et al.  Hereditary diffuse gastric cancer - pathophysiology and clinical management. , 2014, Best practice & research. Clinical gastroenterology.

[52]  Steven J. M. Jones,et al.  Comprehensive molecular characterization of gastric adenocarcinoma , 2014, Nature.

[53]  Eva Negri,et al.  Worldwide trends in gastric cancer mortality (1980-2011), with predictions to 2015, and incidence by subtype. , 2014, European journal of cancer.

[54]  K. Ulm,et al.  Helicobacter pylori antibody responses and evolution of precancerous gastric lesions in a Chinese population , 2014, International journal of cancer.

[55]  Sharmila Anandasabapathy,et al.  Gastric Cancer: Descriptive Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Screening, and Prevention , 2014, Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention.

[56]  C. Clarke,et al.  Long-term survivors of gastric cancer: a California population-based study. , 2012, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[57]  N. Hu,et al.  A shared susceptibility locus in PLCE1 at 10q23 for gastric adenocarcinoma and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma , 2010, Nature Genetics.

[58]  H. Seno,et al.  Mechanism for gastric cancer development by Helicobacter pylori infection , 2008, Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology.

[59]  Khean Lee Goh,et al.  Screening for gastric cancer in Asia: current evidence and practice. , 2008, The Lancet. Oncology.

[60]  M. Gail,et al.  Randomized double-blind factorial trial of three treatments to reduce the prevalence of precancerous gastric lesions. , 2006, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[61]  D. Huntsman,et al.  Gastric cancer: New genetic developments , 2005, Journal of surgical oncology.

[62]  M. Blaser,et al.  Helicobacter pylori seropositivity and subsite-specific gastric cancer risks in Linxian, China. , 2001, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[63]  J. Fraumeni,et al.  Changing patterns in the incidence of esophageal and gastric carcinoma in the United States , 1998, Cancer.

[64]  Rodolfo Saracci,et al.  Tobacco smoking and gastric cancer: Review and meta‐analysis , 1997, International journal of cancer.

[65]  C. McConkey,et al.  Increasing incidence of adenocarcinoma of the gastric cardia and adjacent sites. , 1990, British Journal of Cancer.

[66]  P. Laurén,et al.  THE TWO HISTOLOGICAL MAIN TYPES OF GASTRIC CARCINOMA: DIFFUSE AND SO-CALLED INTESTINAL-TYPE CARCINOMA. AN ATTEMPT AT A HISTO-CLINICAL CLASSIFICATION. , 1965, Acta pathologica et microbiologica Scandinavica.

[67]  Wanqing Chen,et al.  Incidence and mortality of stomach cancer in China, 2014. , 2018, Chinese journal of cancer research = Chung-kuo yen cheng yen chiu.

[68]  Yeonju Kim,et al.  Overview of the National Cancer screening programme and the cancer screening status in Korea. , 2011, Asian Pacific journal of cancer prevention : APJCP.

[69]  E. Ponce,et al.  World Cancer Research Fund, American Institute for Cancer Research. Second Expert Report, Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective. United Kingdom: WCRF/AICR, 2001 , 2009 .

[70]  V. Polezhaev Effect of a , 1974 .

[71]  J. Higginson International Agency for Research on Cancer. , 1968, WHO chronicle.