Depression and diabetes: a large population-based study of sociodemographic, lifestyle, and clinical factors associated with depression in type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to investigate factors associated with depression in type 1 and type 2 diabetes and test whether these differ from factors associated with depression in the nondiabetic population. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS In an unselected population study comprising 60,869 individuals, potential sociodemographic, lifestyle, and clinical factors were investigated in participants with and without diabetes. The associations between hyperglycemia and depression in types 1 and 2 diabetes were also studied. The levels of depression were self-rated by using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. RESULTS Several factors were correlated with depression in types 1 and 2 diabetes. However, these factors were not different from those of the nondiabetic population. Comorbid chronic somatic diseases were associated with depression in type 2 but not type 1 diabetes. In type 2 diabetes, those without comorbidity had the same odds of depression as the nondiabetic population with no chronic somatic diseases. No significant associations were found for hyperglycemia in relation to depression in type 1 and type 2 diabetes. CONCLUSIONS Type 2 diabetes without other chronic somatic diseases did not increase the risk of depression. Factors associated with depression in type 1 and type 2 diabetes were shared with the nondiabetic population.

[1]  K. Midthjell,et al.  Is questionnaire information valid in the study of a chronic disease such as diabetes? The Nord-Trøndelag diabetes study. , 1992, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[2]  C. Chesla,et al.  Contributors to depression in Latino and European-American patients with type 2 diabetes. , 2001, Diabetes care.

[3]  V. Meyer-Rochow,et al.  Insulin resistance and depression: cross sectional study , 2004, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[4]  W. Katon,et al.  Behavioral and clinical factors associated with depression among individuals with diabetes. , 2004, Diabetes care.

[5]  R. Rubin,et al.  Levels and Risks of Depression and Anxiety Symptomatology Among Diabetic Adults , 1997, Diabetes Care.

[6]  R. Snaith,et al.  The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) , 1983 .

[7]  A. Nouwen,et al.  A review of the relationship between depression and diabetes in adults: is there a link? , 2000, Diabetes care.

[8]  C van Weel,et al.  Comorbidity of chronic diseases in general practice. , 1993, Journal of clinical epidemiology.

[9]  A. Mykletun,et al.  Hospital Anxiety and Depression (HAD) scale: Factor structure, item analyses and internal consistency in a large population , 2001, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[10]  A. Beekman,et al.  The longitudinal relation between chronic diseases and depression in older persons in the community: the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam. , 2004, Journal of clinical epidemiology.

[11]  R. Carney,et al.  Depression and poor glycemic control: a meta-analytic review of the literature. , 2000, Diabetes care.

[12]  L. Palinkas,et al.  Type 2 Diabetes and Depressive Symptoms in Older Adults: a Population‐based Study , 1991, Diabetic medicine : a journal of the British Diabetic Association.

[13]  K. Freedland,et al.  The prevalence of comorbid depression in adults with diabetes: a meta-analysis. , 2001, Diabetes care.

[14]  L. Egede,et al.  Independent factors associated with major depressive disorder in a national sample of individuals with diabetes. , 2003, Diabetes care.

[15]  P. Parekh,et al.  Personality correlates of glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. , 2000, Diabetes care.

[16]  E. Jacobs,et al.  Agreement of Self-Reported Medical History: Comparison of an In-Person Interview with a Self-Administered Questionnaire , 2003, European Journal of Epidemiology.

[17]  S. Keinänen-Kiukaanniemi,et al.  Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and depression in a middle-aged Finnish population , 1997, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.

[18]  J. Lynch,et al.  Epidemiologic evidence for the relation between socioeconomic status and depression, obesity, and diabetes. , 2002, Journal of psychosomatic research.

[19]  W. Satariano,et al.  Patterns of comorbidity and the use of health services in the Dutch population. , 2001, European journal of public health.

[20]  P. Brantley,et al.  A descriptive and comparative study of the prevalence of depressive and anxiety disorders in low-income adults with type 2 diabetes and other chronic illnesses. , 2003, Diabetes care.

[21]  A. Kinmonth,et al.  Dimensional perspective on the recognition of depressive symptoms in primary care , 2001, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[22]  C. van Weel,et al.  The impact of type 2 diabetes mellitus on daily functioning. , 1999, Family practice.

[23]  C. Herrmann.  International experiences with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale--a review of validation data and clinical results. , 1997, Journal of psychosomatic research.

[24]  R. Rosmond.  Stress induced disturbances of the HPA axis: a pathway to Type 2 diabetes? , 2003, Medical science monitor : international medical journal of experimental and clinical research.

[25]  K. Freedland,et al.  Association of Depression and Diabetes Complications: A Meta-Analysis , 2001, Psychosomatic medicine.

[26]  Theodore J Thompson,et al.  Excess physical limitations among adults with diabetes in the U.S. population, 1997-1999. , 2003, Diabetes care.

[27]  G. Huston.  The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. , 1987, The Journal of rheumatology.

[28]  R. Snaith,et al.  The hospital anxiety and depression scale. , 2013, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.

[29]  J. Kruse,et al.  On the association between diabetes and mental disorders in a community sample: results from the German National Health Interview and Examination Survey. , 2003, Diabetes care.

[30]  K. Midthjell,et al.  Diabetes mellitus and psychological well-being. Results of the Nord-Trøndelag health survey , 1995, Scandinavian journal of social medicine.