From raw materials to NORM by-products

Abstract Naturally occurring radionuclides are present in the Earth crust; however, their distribution is not homogeneous. When primary or secondary raw materials containing relatively low concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides are introduced in an industrial process then the radionuclides can become more concentrated in the produced (by-)products. For example, during the production of purified metals, throughout the purification process, also other elements, such as naturally occurring radionuclides, become concentrated in the by-products. In order to assure radiation protection of the population, it is important to map the potential exposure for workers and the general public. There is an extensive literature available regarding the presence of naturally occurring radionuclides in various by-products; however, it can be hard to review and even to interpret for the regulators and members of the industry in order to assure the safe use of by-products for example in construction. To solve this problem data mining and text processing have been applied to the ever-increasing numbers of publications (More than 39,000 filtered publications have been processed up to the Jan. 6, 2017), and the NORM4Building database has been compiled based on the analysis of the collected data. Based on this database using text analysis methods the most NORM prone raw materials and industries have been identified. This chapter gives a concise overview on the parameters to be considered during the selection of NORM by-products as feedstock for the construction industry, specifically for the production of cement, concrete, and ceramics. In the frame of this chapter the technical and radiological properties of the most representative industrial processes (such as coal mining and combustion; iron and steel production; the alumina, the zirconia, and the phosphate industry; etc.) and their by-products are discussed, especially considering the needs of the construction industry and the new European Basic Safety Standards.

[1]  A. A Fathivand,et al.  Natural radioactivity concentration in raw materials used for manufacturing refractory products , 2007 .

[2]  It Istituto Superiore di Sanit,et al.  Radiation protection and NORM residue management in the zircon and zirconia industries , 2007 .

[3]  N.Ahmad Matiullah,et al.  Natural radioactivity in Jordanian soil and building materials and the associated radiation hazards , 1998 .

[4]  L. Rikhvanov,et al.  Geochemistry of radioactive elements (U, Th) in coal and peat of northern Asia (Siberia, Russian Far East, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia) , 2011 .

[5]  Hidenori Yonehara,et al.  Accurate determination of naturally occurring radionuclides in Philippine coal-fired thermal power plants using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and γ-spectroscopy , 2010 .

[6]  J Beretka,et al.  Natural radioactivity of Australian building materials, industrial wastes and by-products. , 1985, Health physics.

[7]  Jelle Mertens,et al.  The red mud accident in ajka (hungary): plant toxicity and trace metal bioavailability in red mud contaminated soil. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[8]  Mohammad Al-Oudat,et al.  Radiological impacts of phosphogypsum. , 2011, Journal of environmental management.

[9]  R. Bialucha,et al.  Naturally occurring radioactivity in industrial by-products from coal-fired power plants, from municipal waste incineration and from the iron- and steel-industry , 2005 .

[10]  Xinwei Lu,et al.  Natural radioactivity of coal and its by-products in the Baoji coal-fired power plant, China , 2006 .

[11]  B. Moharram,et al.  External exposure doses due to gamma emitting natural radionuclides in some Egyptian building materials. , 2012, Applied radiation and isotopes : including data, instrumentation and methods for use in agriculture, industry and medicine.

[12]  M. Jankovic,et al.  Concentrations of natural radionuclides in imported zirconium minerals , 2011 .

[13]  Debashish Sengupta,et al.  Natural radioactivity in the newly discovered high background radiation area on the eastern coast of Orissa, India , 2004 .

[14]  G Johnston.  An evaluation of radiation and dust hazards at a mineral sand processing plant. , 1991, Health physics.

[15]  Hidenori Yonehara,et al.  Occupational Exposure to Natural Radiation in Zirconium Refractory Plants in Japan , 2013, Health physics.

[16]  B. Mazzilli,et al.  Partitioning of radionuclides and trace elements in phosphogypsum and its source materials based on sequential extraction methods. , 2006, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[17]  Debashish Sengupta,et al.  Radionuclide and trace element contamination around Kolaghat Thermal Power Station, West Bengal - Environmental implications , 2005 .

[18]  B. Mazzilli,et al.  Distribution of natural radionuclides in the production and use of phosphate fertilizers in Brazil. , 2006, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[19]  Premchand,et al.  Characteristics and utilisation of copper slag—a review , 2003 .

[20]  T. V. Ramachandran,et al.  Radiological impact of utilization of phosphogypsum and fly ash in building construction in India , 2005 .

[21]  Jon Barry,et al.  A statistical approach to investigating enhancement of polonium-210 in the Eastern Irish Sea arising from discharges from a former phosphate processing plant. , 2014, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[22]  A Michael Donoghue,et al.  Radiological assessment for bauxite mining and alumina refining. , 2013, The Annals of occupational hygiene.

[23]  Hussein Em.  Radioactivity of phosphate ore, superphosphate, and phosphogypsum in Abu-Zaabal phosphate plant, Egypt , 1994 .

[24]  T. Szczygielski,et al.  Natural radioactivity of wastes , 2010 .

[25]  David S Kosson,et al.  Analysis of Naturally-occurring Radionuclides in Coal Combustion Fly Ash, Gypsum, and Scrubber Residue Samples , 2013, Health physics.

[26]  Hiroshi Shinohara,et al.  Changes to the volcanic outgassing mechanism and very-long-period seismicity from 2007 to 2011 at Mt. Asama, Japan , 2015 .

[27]  Mohammed J. Zaki.  Data Mining and Analysis: Fundamental Concepts and Algorithms , 2014 .

[28]  G. A. Ayçik,et al.  Radioactivity measurements of coals and ashes from coalfired power plants in the southwestern part of Turkey , 1997 .

[29]  Yiannis Pontikes,et al.  New perspectives and issues arising from the introduction of NORM residues in building materials , 2012 .

[30]  J. A. Corbacho,et al.  Modelling the behaviour of 210Po in high temperature processes. , 2011, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[31]  Ирина Владимировна Штангеева,et al.  NATURALLY OCCURRING RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL (NORM V) , 2008 .

[32]  Ning Wang,et al.  Radiological restrictions of using red mud as building material additive , 2012, Waste management & research : the journal of the International Solid Wastes and Public Cleansing Association, ISWA.

[33]  Tibor Kovács,et al.  Radiological aspects of the usability of red mud as building material additive. , 2008, Journal of hazardous materials.

[34]  T. O. Shepker,et al.  Physical and chemical characteristics of blast furnace, basic oxygen furnace, and electric arc furnace steel industry slags. , 2000 .

[35]  B. L. Tracy,et al.  Radiological impact of coal-fired power generation , 1985 .

[36]  N. D. Kaushika,et al.  Clean Coal Technologies for Power Generation , 2013 .

[37]  J P Bolivar,et al.  Radioactive characterization of the main materials involved in the titanium dioxide production process and their environmental radiological impact. , 2013, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[38]  M Maghrabi,et al.  Investigations on the activity concentrations of 238U, 226RA, 228RA, 210PB and 40K in Jordan phosphogypsum and fertilizers. , 2008, Radiation protection dosimetry.

[39]  Hidenori Yonehara,et al.  Measurement of natural radioactive nuclide concentrations in various metal ores used as industrial raw materials in Japan and estimation of dose received by workers handling them. , 2009, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[40]  S. Charalambous,et al.  HAZARDS FROM RADIOACTIVITY OF FLY ASH OF GREEK COAL POWER PLANTS (CPP) , 1980 .

[41]  Rajesh Kumar,et al.  An investigation of radon exhalation rate and estimation of radiation doses in coal and fly ash samples. , 2008, Applied radiation and isotopes : including data, instrumentation and methods for use in agriculture, industry and medicine.

[42]  S. K. Chakarvarti,et al.  Radon activity and exhalation rates in Indian fly ash samples , 2010 .

[43]  D. Karangelos,et al.  Radiological and instrumental neutron activation analysis determined characteristics of size-fractionated fly ash. , 2010, Journal of hazardous materials.

[44]  U. Çevik,et al.  Radiological Characterization around the Afsin-Elbistan Coal-Fired Power Plant in Turkey , 2008 .

[45]  Malcolm B. Cooper,et al.  Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) in Australian Industries - Review of Current Inventories and Future Generation , 2005 .

[46]  Catherine Organo,et al.  Investigation of occupational radiation exposures to NORM at an Irish peat-fired power station and potential use of peat fly ash by the construction industry , 2005, Journal of radiological protection : official journal of the Society for Radiological Protection.

[47]  S. Chinchón-Payá,et al.  Radiological impact of cement, concrete and admixtures in Spain , 2011 .

[48]  M. Medhat,et al.  Assessment of radiation hazards due to natural radioactivity in some building materials used in Egyptian dwellings. , 2009, Radiation protection dosimetry.

[49]  M. Al-Masri,et al.  NORM emissions from heavy oil and natural gas fired power plants in Syria. , 2012, Journal of Environmental Radioactivity.

[50]  R. G. Sonkawade,et al.  Measurement of natural radioactivity and radon exhalation rate in fly ash samples from a thermal power plant and estimation of radiation doses , 2013 .

[51]  P. N. Dimotakis,et al.  Trace metals in lignites and ashes of Greek power plants , 1988 .

[52]  R. Galindo,et al.  Characterization of Solid Wastes from Aluminum Tertiary Sector: The Current State of Spanish Industry , 2015 .

[53]  M. Gallyas,et al.  Natural Radioactivity of Raw Materials and Products in the Cement Industry , 1984 .

[54]  Şeref Turhan,et al.  Assessment of the radiological impacts of utilizing coal combustion fly ash as main constituent in the production of cement , 2011, Environmental monitoring and assessment.

[55]  T. Sofilić,et al.  Monitoring of 137Cs in electric arc furnace steel making process , 2010 .

[56]  S. E. Simopoulos,et al.  Natural radioactivity releases from lignite power plants in Greece , 1987 .

[57]  R. M. Tripathi,et al.  An evaluation of radiation exposures in a tropical phosphogypsum disposal environment. , 2009, Radiation protection dosimetry.

[58]  Barbara Paci Mazzilli,et al.  Radiological Implications of Using Phosphogypsum as a Building Material in Brazil , 1999 .

[59]  Lian Zhang,et al.  Study on the species of heavy metals in MSW incineration fly ash and their leaching behavior , 2016 .

[60]  D. Karangelos,et al.  Radiological characteristics and investigation of the radioactive equilibrium in the ashes produced in lignite-fired power plants. , 2004, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[61]  Daniel Marcos Bonotto,et al.  Radionuclides, heavy metals and fluorine incidence at Tapira phosphate rocks, Brazil, and their industrial (by) products. , 2006, Environmental pollution.

[62]  Ş. Turhan,et al.  Natural radionuclide content of disposed phosphogypsum as TENORM produced from phosphorus fertilizer industry in Turkey , 2012 .

[63]  Constantin Papastefanou,et al.  Escaping radioactivity from coal-fired power plants (CPPs) due to coal burning and the associated hazards: a review. , 2010, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[64]  M. Manolopoulou,et al.  Behavior of natural radionuclides in lignites and fly ashes , 1992 .

[65]  J. Leung,et al.  Radiological impact of coal ash from the power plants in Hong Kong , 1996 .

[66]  K. Agwu,et al.  Assessment of Natural Radioactivity in Phosphate Ore, Phosphogypsum and Soil Samples Around a Phosphate Fertilizer Plant in Nigeria , 2012, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.

[67]  R Mustonen,et al.  Natural radioactivity in and radon exhalation from Finnish building materials. , 1984, Health physics.

[68]  M. Zieliński,et al.  Influence of constant magnetic field on the properties of waste phosphogypsum and fly ash composites , 2015 .

[69]  M. H. T. Taddei,et al.  The natural radioactivity of Brazilian phosphogypsum , 2001 .

[70]  William C. Burnett,et al.  Radiochemistry of Florida phosphogypsum , 1996 .

[71]  Francisca Puertas,et al.  Escorias de alto horno: composición y comportamiento hidráulico , 1993 .

[72]  Una Sofilić,et al.  Natural Radioactivity in Steel Slag Aggregate , 2011 .

[73]  Jeffery Raphael Roesler,et al.  Steel furnace slag aggregate expansion and hardened concrete properties , 2015 .

[74]  J. A. Corbacho,et al.  Enhancement of natural radionuclides in the surroundings of the four largest coal-fired power plants in Spain. , 2012, Journal of environmental monitoring : JEM.

[75]  A E Lally,et al.  The radioactivity content of United Kingdom coal. , 1984, The Science of the total environment.

[76]  C Nuccetelli,et al.  Natural radioactivity in building materials in the European Union: a database and an estimate of radiological significance. , 2012, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[77]  L. Bruzzi,et al.  Natural radioactivity in refractory manufacturing plants and exposure of workers to ionising radiation. , 2009, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[78]  Tetsuo Ishikawa,et al.  The effect of water content on the radon emanation coefficient for some building materials used in Japan , 2011 .

[79]  D. I. Fávaro,et al.  Natural radioactivity in phosphate rock, phosphogypsum and phosphate fertilizers in Brazil , 2005 .

[80]  S. J. Sartandel,et al.  Measurement of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in beach sand minerals using HPGe based gamma-ray spectrometry , 2012, Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry.

[81]  Richard J Ball,et al.  Characterisation and use of biomass fly ash in cement-based materials. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[82]  S Turhan,et al.  Assessment of the natural radioactivity and radiological hazards in Turkish cement and its raw materials. , 2008, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[83]  M. Soupioni,et al.  Neutron activation analysis and natural radioactivity measurements of lignite and ashes from Megalopolis basin, Greece , 2007 .

[84]  David G. Billing,et al.  Radioactive nuclides in phosphogypsum from the lowveld region of South Africa , 2016 .

[85]  Vladimir Simić,et al.  U and Th in some brown coals of Serbia and Montenegro and their environmental impact , 2008, Environmental science and pollution research international.

[86]  J. den Boer,et al.  Radioactivity and radon exhalation rates of building materials in The Netherlands. , 1985, The Science of the total environment.

[87]  Serena Righi,et al.  Assessment of the radiological impacts of a zircon sand processing plant. , 2005, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[88]  Mahesh Prakash,et al.  Predicting Dross Formation in Aluminium Melt Transfer Operations , 2009 .

[89]  Elis Holm,et al.  The natural radioactivity of the rock phosphates, phosphatic products and their environmental implications , 1993 .

[90]  R. Menegazzo,et al.  The worldwide NORM production and a fully automated gamma-ray spectrometer for their characterization , 2012, Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry.

[91]  Vicente Serradell,et al.  Occupational exposure to natural radioactivity in a zircon sand milling plant. , 2008, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[92]  Dragana Todorovic,et al.  Analysis of Natural Radionuclides in Coal, Slag and Ash in Coal-Fired Power Plants in Serbia , 2011 .

[93]  Tetsuo Ishikawa,et al.  Determination of uranium concentrations and its activity ratios in coal and fly ash from Philippine coal-fired thermal power plants using ICP-MS and TIMS , 2011 .

[94]  Hisham F. Aly,et al.  Evaluation of U, Th, K and emanated radon in some NORM and TENORM samples , 2006 .

[95]  Tibor Kovács,et al.  Radiological characterization of clay mixed red mud in particular as regards its leaching features. , 2016, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[96]  N Fathabadi,et al.  Estimates of the occupational exposure to tenorm in the phosphoric acid production plant in Iran. , 2012, Radiation protection dosimetry.

[97]  G. Xhixha,et al.  Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) generated from lignite-fired power plants in Kosovo. , 2014, Journal of environmental radioactivity.

[98]  J L Mas,et al.  Behaviour and fluxes of natural radionuclides in the production process of a phosphoric acid plant. , 2009, Applied radiation and isotopes : including data, instrumentation and methods for use in agriculture, industry and medicine.

[99]  V Kumar,et al.  Natural radioactivity of Indian building materials and by-products. , 1999, Applied radiation and isotopes : including data, instrumentation and methods for use in agriculture, industry and medicine.

[100]  Adel G E Abbady,et al.  Naturally occurring radioactive material from the aluminium industry—a case study: the Egyptian Aluminium Company, Nag Hammady, Egypt , 2006, Journal of radiological protection : official journal of the Society for Radiological Protection.

[101]  M. Ghiassi-nejad,et al.  Concentrations of natural radionuclides in imported mineral substances. , 2001, Environment international.

[102]  Serena Righi,et al.  Radioactivity in raw materials and end products in the Italian ceramics industry , 2000 .

[103]  Chen Dai,et al.  Development of Aluminum Dross-based Material for Engineering Application , 2012 .