Inter-individual and age differences in exploration, neophobia and problem-solving ability in a Neotropical raptor (Milvago chimango)

Animal innovations have far-reaching ecological and evolutionary consequences. The occurrence and persistence of an innovation require several processes, including exploration, social and asocial learning, and low neophobia. In addition, the identity of the innovator may determine how these new behaviours are socially transmitted. Taking into account inter-individual and age differences, we investigated three correlates of animal innovation: object exploration, neophobia level and novel problem-solving ability in an opportunistic generalist raptor, the Chimango Caracara (Milvago chimango). Eighteen individuals (7 adults and 11 juveniles) were caught during the non-breeding period and housed in individual cages in outdoor aviaries. Each bird was given three tests: exploration, neophobia and problem-solving. Individuals differed in their response to novel situations both within and between age groups. Most of the juveniles were more explorative and had a lower neophobic response to a strange object than adult birds, but both age groups were able to solve a novel problem when given a food reward. In juveniles, neophobia level and problem-solving performance were inversely related; however, we found no relationship between these behaviours in adults. Exploration did not correlate with neophobia or problem-solving ability for either age group. This research is one of the few studies exploring the inter-individual and age differences in behavioural innovation and their correlates in a bird of prey. The explorative tendency, low neophobia and ability to innovate showed by M. chimango may be advantageous for this generalist and opportunistic raptor and might be some of the factors underlying its ecological success.

[1]  B. Heinrich Neophilia and exploration in juvenile common ravens, Corvus corax , 1995, Animal Behaviour.

[2]  L. Huber,et al.  Technical intelligence in animals: the kea model , 2006, Animal Cognition.

[3]  L. Lefebvre,et al.  Social learning and innovation are positively correlated in pigeons (Columba livia) , 2007, Animal Cognition.

[4]  L. Lefebvre,et al.  Feeding innovations and forebrain size in Australasian birds , 1998 .

[5]  Kees van Oers,et al.  Drd4 gene polymorphisms are associated with personality variation in a passerine bird , 2007, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[6]  K. Laland,et al.  Animal innovation: An introduction. , 2003 .

[7]  R. Greenberg The role of neophobia and neophilia in the development of innovative behaviour of birds , 2003 .

[8]  K. Laland,et al.  Foraging innovation is inversely related to competitive ability in male but not in female guppies , 1999 .

[9]  V. Canoine,et al.  Effects of experience and object complexity on exploration in garden warblers (Sylvia borin) , 2006 .

[10]  D. Sol Behavioural Innovation: A Neglected Issue in the Ecological and Evolutionary Literature? , 2003 .

[11]  L. Lefebvre,et al.  Problem solving and neophobia in a columbiform–passeriform assemblage in Barbados , 2001, Animal Behaviour.

[12]  K. Laland,et al.  Primate Innovation: Sex, Age and Social Rank Differences , 2001, International Journal of Primatology.

[13]  I. Newton Population Ecology of Raptors , 1981 .

[14]  D. Bird,et al.  Captive fledgling American kestrels prefer to play with objects resembling natural prey , 1996, Animal Behaviour.

[15]  J. Isacch,et al.  Experimental analysis of novelty responses in a bird assemblage inhabiting a suburban marsh , 2006 .

[16]  A. Vassallo,et al.  Experimental assessment of problem solving by Milvago chimango (Aves: Falconiformes) , 2007, Journal of Ethology.

[17]  A. Wilson,et al.  Birds, behavior, and anatomical evolution. , 1983, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[18]  M. Wink,et al.  Exploration of environmental changes relates to lifestyle , 2005 .

[19]  L. Lefebvre,et al.  Feeding innovations and forebrain size in birds , 1997, Animal Behaviour.

[20]  J. L. Morrison,et al.  NESTING HABITAT AND SUCCESS OF THE CHIMANGO CARACARA IN SOUTHERN CHILE , 2000 .

[21]  J. D. Hoyo,et al.  Handbook of the Birds of the World , 2010 .

[22]  Knowing psychological disposition might help to find innovation , 2007, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[23]  K. Pfeffer,et al.  Hormonal correlates of being an innovative greylag goose, Anser anser , 2002, Animal Behaviour.

[24]  S. Beissinger,et al.  Experimental analysis of diet specialization in the snail kite: the role of behavioral conservatism , 1994, Oecologia.

[25]  B. Pendleton Raptor management techniques manual , 1987 .

[26]  Simon M. Reader,et al.  Innovation and social learning: individual variation and brain evolution * , 2003 .

[27]  Aldo Iván Vassallo,et al.  Novelty Responses in a Bird Assemblage Inhabiting an Urban Area , 2008 .

[28]  K. Laland,et al.  Foraging innovation in the guppy , 1999, Animal Behaviour.

[29]  H. Kummer,et al.  Conditions of Innovative Behaviour in Primates , 1985 .

[30]  L. Lefebvre,et al.  FOREBRAIN SIZE AND INNOVATION RATE IN EUROPEAN BIRDS: FEEDING, NESTING AND CONFOUNDING VARIABLES , 2000 .

[31]  L. Lefebvre,et al.  Innovation in groups: does the proximity of others facilitate or inhibit performance? , 2009 .

[32]  Kees van Oers,et al.  Realized heritability of personalities in the great tit (Parus major) , 2003, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences.

[33]  Kevin N. Laland,et al.  The relation between social rank, neophobia and individual learning in starlings , 2006, Animal Behaviour.

[34]  L. Lefebvre,et al.  Is the link between forebrain size and feeding innovations caused by confounding variables? A study of Australian and North American birds , 2001, Animal Cognition.

[35]  Sara M. Stieb,et al.  Personality traits in resident and migratory warbler species. , 2005 .

[36]  H. Winkler,et al.  The significance of ecological factors for exploration and neophobia in parrots , 2002 .

[37]  G. Katzir Relationships Between Social Structure and Response To Novelty in Captive Jackdaws, Corvus Monedula L. Ii. Response To Novel Palatable Food , 1982 .

[38]  K. Laland,et al.  The origin and spread of innovations in starlings , 2008, Animal Behaviour.

[39]  P. Russell,et al.  Relationships between exploratory behaviour and fear: a review. , 1973, British journal of psychology.

[40]  L. Lefebvre,et al.  Positive and negative correlates of feeding innovations in birds: evidence for limited modularity , 2003 .

[41]  D. A. Christie,et al.  Raptors of the World , 2002 .

[42]  R. Greenberg The Role of Neophobia in Determining the Degree of Foraging Specialization in Some Migrant Warblers , 1983, The American Naturalist.

[43]  L. Lefebvre,et al.  Behavioural flexibility predicts species richness in birds, but not extinction risk , 2003, Animal Behaviour.

[44]  R. Greenberg Differences in feeding neophobia in the tropical migrant wood warblers Dendroica castanea and D. pensylvanica. , 1984 .

[45]  L. Huber,et al.  Limited spread of innovation in a wild parrot, the kea (Nestor notabilis) , 2006, Animal Cognition.

[46]  R. Greenberg,et al.  Ecological Aspects of Neophobia and Neophilia in Birds , 2001 .

[47]  P. Drent,et al.  Realized heritability and repeatability of risk-taking behaviour in relation to avian personalities , 2004, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences.

[48]  P. Schwagmeyer Searching today for tomorrow's mates , 1995, Animal Behaviour.

[49]  K. Laland,et al.  Age differences in neophilia, exploration, and innovation in family groups of callitrichid monkeys , 2005, American journal of primatology.

[50]  R. Fraga,et al.  Biología reproductiva del Chimango (Polyborus chimango) , 1986, El hornero.

[51]  N. Dingemanse,et al.  Repeatability and heritability of exploratory behaviour in great tits from the wild , 2002, Animal Behaviour.