Forefoot, rearfoot and shank coupling: effect of variations in speed and mode of gait.

BACKGROUND Although there is a wealth of research into the kinematic coupling between the foot and shank, it remains unclear whether the relationship is stable across speed and mode of gait. The aim of this study was to determine whether the coupling relationship between the forefoot, rearfoot and shank differed between walking and running, and across different running speeds. METHODS Twelve subjects walked/ran barefoot over-ground at one walking and three running speeds. The shank, rearfoot and forefoot were modelled as rigid segments and three-dimensional joint kinematics were determined using a seven camera ProReflex system. Coupling between the forefoot, rearfoot and shank was assessed using cross-correlation and vector coding techniques. FINDINGS Cross-correlation of rearfoot eversion/inversion with shank internal/external rotation was lower in walking (r=0.49) compared to running (r>0.95). This was also the case between rearfoot frontal plane and forefoot sagittal plane motion (walking, r=-0.80; running, r=-0.96). Rearfoot frontal plane and forefoot transverse plane cross-correlation was high in both running and walking (r>0.90), but there was little evidence of any coupling between rearfoot frontal plane and forefoot frontal plane motion in any condition. No differences in cross-correlations were found between the three running speeds. INTERPRETATION Kinematic coupling between the forefoot, rearfoot and shank was weak during walking relative to running. In particular, the low cross-correlation between rearfoot eversion/inversion and shank internal/external rotation during walking implies the two motions are not rigidly linked, as has been assumed in previous injury models.

[1]  P. Helliwell,et al.  Three-dimensional kinematics at the ankle joint complex in rheumatoid arthritis patients with painful valgus deformity of the rearfoot. , 2002, Rheumatology.

[2]  David A. Winter,et al.  Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement , 1990 .

[3]  H. Elftman.  The transverse tarsal joint and its control. , 1960, Clinical orthopaedics.

[4]  Peter R. Cavanagh,et al.  Biomechanics of Distance Running. , 1990 .

[5]  R. Smith,et al.  Three-dimensional kinematics of the rearfoot during the stance phase of walking in normal young adult males. , 1996, Clinical biomechanics.

[6]  A. Lundberg,et al.  Ankle and Subtalar Kinematics Measured with Intracortical Pins during the Stance Phase of Walking , 2004, Foot & ankle international.

[7]  R. Donatelli.  The Biomechanics of the Foot and Ankle , 1995 .

[8]  B T Bates,et al.  Asynchrony between subtalar and knee joint function during running. , 1999, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[9]  R. Ferber,et al.  Effect of foot orthotics on rearfoot and tibia joint coupling patterns and variability. , 2005, Journal of biomechanics.

[10]  G. Caldwell,et al.  Coefficient of cross correlation and the time domain correspondence. , 1999, Journal of electromyography and kinesiology : official journal of the International Society of Electrophysiological Kinesiology.

[11]  Irene S. McClay,et al.  Coupling Parameters in Runners With Normal and Excessive Pronation , 1997 .

[12]  Howard J. Hillstrom,et al.  Three-dimensional, six-degrees-of-freedom kinematics of the human hindfoot during the stance phase of level walking , 1997 .

[13]  A. J. van den Bogert,et al.  Tibiocalcaneal kinematics of barefoot versus shod running. , 2000, Journal of biomechanics.

[14]  H. K. Ramakrishnan,et al.  Repeatability of kinematic, kinetic, and electromyographic data in normal adult gait , 1989, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[15]  J. Manter.  Movements of the subtalar and transverse tarsal joints , 1941 .

[16]  A Leardini,et al.  An anatomically based protocol for the description of foot segment kinematics during gait. , 1999, Clinical biomechanics.

[17]  M. Cornwall,et al.  Motion of the calcaneus, navicular, and first metatarsal during the stance phase of walking. , 2002, Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association.

[18]  James Woodburn,et al.  Multisegment foot motion during gait: proof of concept in rheumatoid arthritis. , 2004, The Journal of rheumatology.

[19]  B. Nigg,et al.  Effects of arch height of the foot on angular motion of the lower extremities in running. , 1993, Journal of biomechanics.

[20]  B E Maki,et al.  Preferred placement of the feet during quiet stance: development of a standardized foot placement for balance testing. , 1997, Clinical biomechanics.

[21]  Joseph Hamill,et al.  Variability of Stride Characteristics and Joint Coordination among Individuals with Unilateral Patellofemoral Pain , 2002 .

[22]  D. Tiberio.  The effect of excessive subtalar joint pronation on patellofemoral mechanics: a theoretical model. , 1987, The Journal of orthopaedic and sports physical therapy.

[23]  A Leardini,et al.  Position and orientation in space of bones during movement: anatomical frame definition and determination. , 1995, Clinical biomechanics.

[24]  M P Kadaba,et al.  Measurement of lower extremity kinematics during level walking , 1990, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[25]  Michael B Pohl,et al.  Changes in foot and lower limb coupling due to systematic variations in step width. , 2006, Clinical biomechanics.

[26]  J J O'Connor,et al.  Kinematic analysis of a multi-segment foot model for research and clinical applications: a repeatability analysis. , 2001, Journal of biomechanics.

[27]  B. MacWilliams,et al.  Foot kinematics and kinetics during adolescent gait. , 2003, Gait & posture.

[28]  M Torode,et al.  Inter-segment foot motion and ground reaction forces over the stance phase of walking. , 2001, Clinical biomechanics.

[29]  Hicks Jh,et al.  The mechanics of the foot. I. The joints. , 1953 .

[30]  J. Hamill,et al.  Timing of lower extremity joint actions during treadmill running. , 1992, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.