Possible influences of lutein and zeaxanthin on the developing retina

The carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin (LZ) are found throughout the central nervous system but reach their highest concentration within the macular region of the primate retina where they are commonly referred to as the macular pigments. Although LZ are a major integral feature of the central fovea, no information currently exists regarding the effects of variability in the concentration of these pigments on the developing retina. In particular, the long-term effects of very low levels of macular pigment are not known and potentially meaningful. Macular pigment levels depend upon dietary intake since LZ cannot be synthesized de novo. Infants with low intake of LZ (eg, infants receiving unfortified infant formula or breast milk from mothers with low carotenoid diets) would be expected to have considerably lower macular pigment compared with infants with high LZ intake (eg, breast-fed infants with mothers on carotenoid-rich diets). In this paper we discuss possible implications of this difference and the available evidence suggesting that LZ could influence the developing visual system.

[1]  F. Khachik,et al.  Identification and quantitation of carotenoids and their metabolites in the tissues of the human eye. , 2001, Experimental eye research.

[2]  J. Mennella,et al.  Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study: the types of foods fed to Hispanic infants and toddlers. , 2006, Journal of the American Dietetic Association.

[3]  O. Sommerburg,et al.  Carotenoid supply in breast-fed and formula-fed neonates , 2000, European Journal of Pediatrics.

[4]  R. Bone,et al.  Stereochemistry of the human macular carotenoids. , 1993, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[5]  D E Ingber,et al.  Mechanical continuity and reversible chromosome disassembly within intact genomes removed from living cells , 1997, Journal of cellular biochemistry.

[6]  H. Shaban,et al.  A2E and Blue Light in the Retina: The Paradigm of Age-Related Macular Degeneration , 2002, Biological chemistry.

[7]  J. C. Nelson,et al.  Neurotransmitter Coupling through Gap Junctions in the Retina , 1998, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[8]  W. Stahl,et al.  Effects of carotenoids and retinoids on gap junctional communication , 2001, BioFactors.

[9]  D M Snodderly,et al.  Individual variations in the spatial profile of human macular pigment. , 1997, Journal of the Optical Society of America. A, Optics, image science, and vision.

[10]  L. Feeney-Burns,et al.  Aging human RPE: morphometric analysis of macular, equatorial, and peripheral cells. , 1984, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[11]  U. Brunk,et al.  Lipofuscin formation in cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells exposed to photoreceptor outer segment material under different oxygen concentrations , 1996, APMIS : acta pathologica, microbiologica, et immunologica Scandinavica.

[12]  K. Nakanishi,et al.  Biosynthetic Studies of A2E, a Major Fluorophore of Retinal Pigment Epithelial Lipofuscin* , 2002, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[13]  J. Glanz.  Force-Carrying Web Pervades Living Cell , 1997, Science.

[14]  R. Bone,et al.  Analysis of the macular pigment by HPLC: retinal distribution and age study. , 1988, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[15]  B. Dreher,et al.  Ontogeny of the primate fovea:a central issue in retinal development , 1998, Progress in Neurobiology.

[16]  B. Saletu,et al.  CFF and Assessment of Pharmacodynamics: Role and Relationship to Psychometric, EEG and Pharmacokinetic Variables , 1982 .

[17]  Angela M. Brown.  Development of visual sensitivity to light and color vision in human infants: A critical review , 1990, Vision Research.

[18]  B. Halliwell,et al.  Lipid peroxidation: its mechanism, measurement, and significance. , 1993, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[19]  J. Dwyer,et al.  Oxygenated Carotenoid Lutein and Progression of Early Atherosclerosis: The Los Angeles Atherosclerosis Study , 2001, Circulation.

[20]  R. Bone,et al.  Carotenoids in the human retina , 1999 .

[21]  E. M. Neilson,et al.  beta-Carotene in breast milk and serum is increased after a single beta-carotene dose. , 1997, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[22]  C. S. Chen,et al.  Demonstration of mechanical connections between integrins, cytoskeletal filaments, and nucleoplasm that stabilize nuclear structure. , 1997, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[23]  P. Ziegler,et al.  Average portions of foods commonly eaten by infants and toddlers in the United States. , 2006, Journal of the American Dietetic Association.

[24]  J. Sweitzer,et al.  Evaluation of signal detection theory on the effects of psychotropic drugs on critical flicker-fusion frequency in normal subjects , 2004, Psychopharmacology.

[25]  P. Derfler,et al.  The United States Department of Agriculture , 1872, Nature.

[26]  E. Ostrea,et al.  Influence of breast-feeding on the restoration of the low serum concentration of vitamin E and beta-carotene in the newborn infant. , 1986, American journal of obstetrics and gynecology.

[27]  F. Delori,et al.  The macular pigment. II. Spatial distribution in primate retinas. , 1984, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[28]  H. Wiemann,et al.  Retest Reliability and Construct Validity of Critical Flicker Fusion Frequency , 1982 .

[29]  V. N. Karnaukhov.  Carotenoids: recent progress, problems and prospects. , 1990, Comparative biochemistry and physiology. B, Comparative biochemistry.

[30]  P. Bernstein,et al.  Retinal tubulin binds macular carotenoids. , 1997, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[31]  K. Fukuzawa,et al.  Rate constants for quenching singlet oxygen and activities for inhibiting lipid peroxidation of carotenoids and α-tocopherol in liposomes , 1998, Lipids.

[32]  F. Khachik,et al.  Identification of lutein and zeaxanthin oxidation products in human and monkey retinas. , 1997, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[33]  B. Jeffrey,et al.  Visual development: Neural basis and new assessment methods. , 2003, The Journal of pediatrics.

[34]  P. Hardy,et al.  Oxidants, nitric oxide and prostanoids in the developing ocular vasculature: a basis for ischemic retinopathy. , 2000, Cardiovascular research.

[35]  Lei Zheng,et al.  Transmission of light to the aging human retina: possible implications for age related macular degeneration. , 2004, Experimental eye research.

[36]  M. Boulton,et al.  Do blue light filters confer protection against age-related macular degeneration? , 2004, Progress in Retinal and Eye Research.

[37]  Marla B Feller,et al.  Neurotransmitters and gap junctions in developing neural circuits , 2000, Brain Research Reviews.

[38]  M. Boulton,et al.  RPE lipofuscin and its role in retinal pathobiology. , 2005, Experimental eye research.

[39]  L. Canfield,et al.  Enzymatic hydrolysis, extraction, and quantitation of retinol and major carotenoids in mature human milk 1 , 1998 .

[40]  L. Bour,et al.  Fundus photography for measurement of macular pigment density distribution in children. , 2002, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[41]  N. Craft,et al.  Carotenoid, tocopherol, and retinol concentrations in elderly human brain. , 2004, The journal of nutrition, health & aging.

[42]  L. Douglass,et al.  Carotenoid composition of human milk during the first month postpartum and the response to beta-carotene supplementation. , 2002, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[43]  F. Delori,et al.  Historic perspectives. Macular yellow pigment. The first 200 years. , 1981, Retina.

[44]  D. Teller,et al.  First glances: the vision of infants. the Friedenwald lecture. , 1997, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[45]  Koji Nakanishi,et al.  Photooxidation of A2-PE, a photoreceptor outer segment fluorophore, and protection by lutein and zeaxanthin. , 2006, Experimental eye research.

[46]  K. Yeum,et al.  Measurement of carotenoids, retinoids, and tocopherols in human lenses. , 1995, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[47]  Mark C. W. van Rossum,et al.  Noise removal at the rod synapse of mammalian retina , 1998, Visual Neuroscience.

[48]  L. C. Thomson,et al.  Retinal Oxygen Supply and Macular Pigmentation , 1949, Nature.

[49]  J. Weiter,et al.  The topography and age relationship of lipofuscin concentration in the retinal pigment epithelium. , 1978, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[50]  D. P. Davies,et al.  Multinational study of major breast milk carotenoids of healthy mothers , 2003, European journal of nutrition.

[51]  D. Thurnham,et al.  A comparison of lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations in formula and human milk samples from Northern Ireland mothers , 2004, European Journal of Clinical Nutrition.

[52]  J. Cook,et al.  Gap junctions in the vertebrate retina , 1995, Microscopy research and technique.

[53]  John Mellerio,et al.  Central retinal thickness is positively correlated with macular pigment optical density. , 2006, Experimental eye research.

[54]  M. Tso,et al.  The occurrence of retinol and carotenoids in human subretinal fluid. , 1998, Current eye research.

[55]  D. Snodderly,et al.  Predictors of optical density of lutein and zeaxanthin in retinas of older women in the Carotenoids in Age-Related Eye Disease Study, an ancillary study of the Women's Health Initiative. , 2006, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[56]  David B. Haytowitz,et al.  Carotenoid Content of U.S. Foods: An Update of the Database , 1999 .

[57]  A. Hendrickson,et al.  The morphological development of the human fovea. , 1984, Ophthalmology.

[58]  F. Delori,et al.  Elevated retinal zeaxanthin and prevention of light-induced photoreceptor cell death in quail. , 2002, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[59]  Werner Gellermann,et al.  Assessment of the validity of in vivo methods of measuring human macular pigment optical density. , 2006, Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry.

[60]  L. Rapp,et al.  Lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations in rod outer segment membranes from perifoveal and peripheral human retina. , 2000, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[61]  Louise Hainline,et al.  The retina of the newborn human infant. , 1982, Science.

[62]  Charlotte Remé,et al.  Light damage revisited: converging evidence, diverging views? , 2004, Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology.

[63]  J. Dudenhausen,et al.  Effect of the stage of lactation in humans on carotenoid levels in milk, blood plasma and plasma lipoprotein fractions , 2004, European journal of nutrition.

[64]  W. T. Ham.  Ocular hazards of light sources: review of current knowledge. , 1983, Journal of occupational medicine. : official publication of the Industrial Medical Association.

[65]  K. Day,et al.  The correlation between the intake of lutein, lycopene and β-carotene from vegetables and fruits, and blood plasma concentrations in a group of women aged 50-65 years in the UK , 1996, British Journal of Nutrition.

[66]  P. Weller,et al.  Identification and quantification of zeaxanthin esters in plants using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. , 2003, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[67]  Billy R Wooten,et al.  CFF thresholds: relation to macular pigment optical density , 2005, Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians.

[68]  W. Stahl,et al.  Vitamins E and C, beta-carotene, and other carotenoids as antioxidants. , 1995, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[69]  G. Pesti.  Nutrient requirements of poultry , 1995 .

[70]  B. Wooten,et al.  Macular pigment: a test of the acuity hypothesis. , 2007, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[71]  S. Fowler,et al.  Yellow Filters Can Improve Magnocellular Function: Motion Sensitivity, Convergence, Accommodation, and Reading , 2005, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[72]  John D Simon,et al.  A2E: A Component of Ocular Lipofuscin¶ , 2004, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[73]  Ham Wt.  Ocular hazards of light sources: review of current knowledge. , 1983 .

[74]  Martha Neuringer,et al.  Nutritional manipulation of primate retinas, II: effects of age, n-3 fatty acids, lutein, and zeaxanthin on retinal pigment epithelium. , 2004, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[75]  W. Stahl,et al.  Antioxidant Effects of Carotenoids: Implication in Photoprotection in Humans , 2001 .

[76]  A. M. Clarke,et al.  SENSITIVITY OF THE RETINA TO RADIATION DAMAGE AS A FUNCTION OF WAVELENGTH * , 1979, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[77]  J S Werner,et al.  Development of scotopic sensitivity and the absorption spectrum of the human ocular media. , 1982, Journal of the Optical Society of America.

[78]  S. Nilsson,et al.  Lipofuscin-formation in retinal pigment epithelial cells is reduced by antioxidants. , 2001, Free radical biology & medicine.

[79]  T. Aleman,et al.  Macular pigment and lutein supplementation in retinitis pigmentosa and Usher syndrome. , 2001, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[80]  H. Hartridge.  Macular Pigment , 1951, Nature.

[81]  X. Geng,et al.  Tubulins in the primate retina: evidence that xanthophylls may be endogenous ligands for the paclitaxel-binding site. , 2001, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry.