Enhanced performance stability of carbon/titania hybrid electrodes during capacitive deionization of oxygen saturated saline water

Abstract Capacitive deionization (CDI) is a promising technology for the desalination of brackish water due to its potentially high energy efficiency and its relatively low costs. One of the most challenging issues limiting current CDI cell performance is poor cycling stability. CDI can show highly reproducible salt adsorption capacities (SACs) for hundreds of cycles in oxygen-free electrolyte, but by contrast poor stability when oxygen is present due to a gradual oxidation of the carbon anode. This oxidation leads to increased concentration of oxygen-containing surface functional groups within the micropores of the carbon anode, increasing parasitic co-ion current and decreasing SAC. In this work, activated carbon (AC) was chemically modified with titania to achieve additional catalytic activity for oxygen-reduction reactions on the electrodes, preventing oxygen from participating in carbon oxidation. Using this approach, we show that the SAC can be increased and the cycling stability prolonged in electrochemically highly demanding oxygen-saturated saline media (5 mM NaCl). The electrochemical oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) occurring in our CDI cell was evaluated by the number of electron transfers during charging and discharging. It was found that, depending on the amount of titania, different ORR pathways take place. A loading of 15 mass% titania presents the best CDI performance and also demonstrates a favorable three-electron transfer ORR.

[1]  Yuping Li,et al.  Desalination stability of capacitive deionization using ordered mesoporous carbon: Effect of oxygen-containing surface groups and pore properties , 2015 .

[2]  G. Hung,et al.  Diffusivity of oxygen in electrolyte solutions , 1972 .

[3]  J. Goodenough,et al.  Design principles for oxygen-reduction activity on perovskite oxide catalysts for fuel cells and metal-air batteries. , 2011, Nature chemistry.

[4]  V. Presser,et al.  Capacitive Deionization using Biomass-based Microporous Salt-Templated Heteroatom-Doped Carbons. , 2015, ChemSusChem.

[5]  Sanjeev Mukerjee,et al.  Elucidating the Mechanism of Oxygen Reduction for Lithium-Air Battery Applications , 2009 .

[6]  D. Rolison,et al.  Redox deposition of nanoscale metal oxides on carbon for next-generation electrochemical capacitors. , 2013, Accounts of chemical research.

[7]  Wei Zhang,et al.  Toward anti-fouling capacitive deionization by using visible-light reduced TiO_2/graphene nanocomposites , 2015 .

[8]  Ayokunle Omosebi,et al.  Enhanced Salt Removal in an Inverted Capacitive Deionization Cell Using Amine Modified Microporous Carbon Cathodes. , 2015, Environmental science & technology.

[9]  T. Arnot,et al.  A review of reverse osmosis membrane materials for desalinationDevelopment to date and future poten , 2011 .

[10]  V. Presser,et al.  Enhanced Electrochemical Energy Storage by Nanoscopic Decoration of Endohedral and Exohedral Carbon with Vanadium Oxide via Atomic Layer Deposition , 2016 .

[11]  Tom Regier,et al.  Co₃O₄ nanocrystals on graphene as a synergistic catalyst for oxygen reduction reaction. , 2011, Nature materials.

[12]  Y. Oren,et al.  Capacitive deionization (CDI) for desalination and water treatment — past, present and future (a review) , 2008 .

[13]  Xin Gao,et al.  Surface charge enhanced carbon electrodes for stable and efficient capacitive deionization using inverted adsorption–desorption behavior , 2015 .

[14]  Jianmao Yang,et al.  Capacitive desalination of ZnO/activated carbon asymmetric capacitor and mechanism analysis , 2015 .

[15]  P. M. Biesheuvel,et al.  Membrane capacitive deionization , 2010 .

[16]  K. Müllen,et al.  Nitrogen-doped ordered mesoporous graphitic arrays with high electrocatalytic activity for oxygen reduction. , 2010, Angewandte Chemie.

[17]  Alexander V. Neimark,et al.  Quenched solid density functional theory method for characterization of mesoporous carbons by nitrogen adsorption , 2012 .

[18]  N. Barakat,et al.  A TiO2 nanofiber/activated carbon composite as a novel effective electrode material for capacitive deionization of brackish water , 2014 .

[19]  M. Jaroniec,et al.  Sulfur and nitrogen dual-doped mesoporous graphene electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction with synergistically enhanced performance. , 2012, Angewandte Chemie.

[20]  Nicolas E. Holubowitch,et al.  Polymer-coated composite anodes for efficient and stable capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[21]  Vengatesan Singaram,et al.  Defect-Rich Metallic Titania (TiO1.23)—An Efficient Hydrogen Evolution Catalyst for Electrochemical Water Splitting , 2016 .

[22]  Ernest Yeager,et al.  Temperature dependence of the Tafel slope for oxygen reduction on platinum in concentrated phosphoric acid , 1993 .

[23]  Doron Aurbach,et al.  The effect of the flow-regime, reversal of polarization, and oxygen on the long term stability in capacitive de-ionization processes , 2015 .

[24]  G. L. Puma,et al.  Carbon nanotubes/titanium dioxide (CNTs/TiO2) nanocomposites prepared by conventional and novel surfactant wrapping sol–gel methods exhibiting enhanced photocatalytic activity , 2009 .

[25]  Jong-Ho Kim,et al.  Role of titania incorporated on activated carbon cloth for capacitive deionization of NaCl solution. , 2003, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[26]  Jun Chen,et al.  Enhancing electrocatalytic oxygen reduction on MnO(2) with vacancies. , 2013, Angewandte Chemie.

[27]  Doron Aurbach,et al.  Side Reactions in Capacitive Deionization (CDI) Processes: The Role of Oxygen Reduction , 2016 .

[28]  E. Teller,et al.  ADSORPTION OF GASES IN MULTIMOLECULAR LAYERS , 1938 .

[29]  Hamouda M. Mousa,et al.  Enhanced desalination performance of capacitive deionization using zirconium oxide nanoparticles-doped graphene oxide as a novel and effective electrode , 2016 .

[30]  J. F. Porter,et al.  Micro-Raman Spectroscopic Characterization of Nanosized TiO_2 Powders Prepared by Vapor Hydrolysis , 1998 .

[31]  Ernest Yeager,et al.  Electrocatalysts for O2 reduction , 1984 .

[32]  Doron Aurbach,et al.  Capacitive Deionization of NaCl Solutions at Non-Steady-State Conditions: Inversion Functionality of the Carbon Electrodes , 2011 .

[33]  T. Fuller,et al.  Kinetic model of the electrochemical oxidation of graphitic carbon in acidic environments. , 2009, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[34]  Jihyun Yu,et al.  Hydrogen peroxide generation in flow-mode capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[35]  P. M. Biesheuvel,et al.  Complementary surface charge for enhanced capacitive deionization. , 2016, Water research.

[36]  V. Presser,et al.  Polyvinylpyrrolidone/polyvinyl butyral composite as a stable binder for castable supercapacitor electrodes in aqueous electrolytes , 2015 .

[37]  H. Gasteiger,et al.  New insights into the electrochemical hydrogen oxidation and evolution reaction mechanism , 2014 .

[38]  Nasser A.M. Barakat,et al.  Graphene wrapped MnO2-nanostructures as effective and stable electrode materials for capacitive deionization desalination technology , 2014 .

[39]  Hewen Liu,et al.  Effects of Oxidation by Hydrogen Peroxide on the Structures of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes , 2006 .

[40]  Min-Woong Ryoo,et al.  Improvement in capacitive deionization function of activated carbon cloth by titania modification. , 2003, Water research.

[41]  J. Robertson,et al.  Interpretation of Raman spectra of disordered and amorphous carbon , 2000 .

[42]  P. M. Biesheuvel,et al.  Theory of water desalination by porous electrodes with fixed chemical charge , 2015 .

[43]  Volker Presser,et al.  Water desalination via capacitive deionization : What is it and what can we expect from it? , 2015 .

[44]  Y. Dzyazko,et al.  Electrodeionization of low-concentrated multicomponent Ni2 +-containing solutions using organic–inorganic ion-exchanger , 2014 .

[45]  E. Horszczaruk,et al.  The Influence of Nano-Fe3O4 on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Cementitious Composites , 2016, Nanoscale Research Letters.

[46]  Hanqing Yu,et al.  Defective titanium dioxide single crystals exposed by high-energy {001} facets for efficient oxygen reduction , 2015, Nature Communications.

[47]  V. Presser,et al.  Tracking the structural arrangement of ions in carbon supercapacitor nanopores using in situ small-angle X-ray scattering , 2015 .

[48]  Klaus Müllen,et al.  3D nitrogen-doped graphene aerogel-supported Fe3O4 nanoparticles as efficient electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction. , 2012, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[49]  C. Banks,et al.  An overview of the electrochemical reduction of oxygen at carbon-based modified electrodes , 2005 .

[50]  J. Georgiadis,et al.  Science and technology for water purification in the coming decades , 2008, Nature.

[51]  R. Lago,et al.  Tailoring activated carbon by surface chemical modification with O, S, and N containing molecules , 2003 .

[52]  Doron Aurbach,et al.  Long term stability of capacitive de-ionization processes for water desalination: The challenge of positive electrodes corrosion , 2013 .

[53]  Tarek A. Kandiel,et al.  Tailored Titanium Dioxide Nanomaterials: Anatase Nanoparticles and Brookite Nanorods as Highly Active Photocatalysts , 2010 .

[54]  P. M. Biesheuvel,et al.  Analysis of electrolyte transport through charged nanopores. , 2015, Physical review. E.

[55]  Jae-Hwan Choi,et al.  Electrode reactions and adsorption/desorption performance related to the applied potential in a capacitive deionization process , 2010 .

[56]  Jackie Y. Ying,et al.  Sol−Gel Synthesis and Hydrothermal Processing of Anatase and Rutile Titania Nanocrystals , 1999 .

[57]  V. Presser,et al.  Graphitization as a Universal Tool to Tailor the Potential‐Dependent Capacitance of Carbon Supercapacitors , 2014 .

[58]  V. Presser,et al.  Enhanced capacitance of nitrogen-doped hierarchically porous carbide-derived carbon in matched ionic liquids , 2015 .

[59]  J. Dutta,et al.  Capacitive deionization with asymmetric electrodes: Electrode capacitance vs electrode surface area , 2015 .

[60]  Ralph E. White,et al.  Synthesis and Characterization of Hydrous Ruthenium Oxide-Carbon Supercapacitors , 2001 .

[61]  Alfred B. Anderson,et al.  O2 reduction on graphite and nitrogen-doped graphite: experiment and theory. , 2006, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[62]  O. Terasaki,et al.  Ultrathin titania coating for high-temperature stable SiO2/Pt nanocatalysts. , 2011, Chemical communications.

[63]  Litao Yan,et al.  Titanium Oxynitride Nanoparticles Anchored on Carbon Nanotubes as Energy Storage Materials. , 2015, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[64]  Sanjeev Mukerjee,et al.  Influence of Nonaqueous Solvents on the Electrochemistry of Oxygen in the Rechargeable Lithium−Air Battery , 2010 .

[65]  Wei Zhang,et al.  Preparation and Application of Electrodes in Capacitive Deionization (CDI): a State-of-Art Review , 2016, Nanoscale Research Letters.

[66]  Kevin G. Gallagher,et al.  The Role of Nanostructure in the Electrochemical Oxidation of Model-Carbon Materials in Acidic Environments , 2010 .

[67]  Choonsoo Kim,et al.  TiO2 sol–gel spray method for carbon electrode fabrication to enhance desalination efficiency of capacitive deionization , 2014 .

[68]  Amy E. Childress,et al.  Forward osmosis: Principles, applications, and recent developments , 2006 .

[69]  Volker Presser,et al.  High performance stability of titania decorated carbon for desalination with capacitive deionization in oxygenated water , 2016 .

[70]  P. M. Biesheuvel,et al.  Charge Efficiency: A Functional Tool to Probe the Double-Layer Structure Inside of Porous Electrodes and Application in the Modeling of Capacitive Deionization , 2010 .

[71]  Aicheng Chen,et al.  Electrodeionization: Principles, Strategies and Applications , 2014 .

[72]  Ting Lu,et al.  Metal–organic framework-engaged formation of a hierarchical hybrid with carbon nanotube inserted porous carbon polyhedra for highly efficient capacitive deionization , 2016 .

[73]  V. Presser,et al.  Performance evaluation of conductive additives for activated carbon supercapacitors in organic electrolyte , 2016 .

[74]  Linda Zou,et al.  Ion-selective carbon nanotube electrodes in capacitive deionisation , 2013 .

[75]  E. Ivers-Tiffée,et al.  Performance of MIEC Cathodes in SOFC Stacks Evaluated by Means of FEM Modeling , 2014 .

[76]  Khalil Abdelrazek Khalil,et al.  Graphene/SnO2 nanocomposite as an effective electrode material for saline water desalination using capacitive deionization , 2014 .

[77]  T. Matsoukas,et al.  Effect of Temperature and Alcohols in the Preparation of Titania Nanoparticles from Alkoxides , 2005 .

[78]  Volker Presser,et al.  Review on the science and technology of water desalination by capacitive deionization , 2013 .

[79]  Khalil Abdelrazek Khalil,et al.  TiO2 nanorod-intercalated reduced graphene oxide as high performance electrode material for membrane capacitive deionization , 2015 .

[80]  Liping Li,et al.  Precursor-directed synthesis of well-faceted brookite TiO2 single crystals for efficient photocatalytic performances , 2015 .

[81]  Sean C. Smith,et al.  Nanoporous graphitic-C3N4@carbon metal-free electrocatalysts for highly efficient oxygen reduction. , 2011, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[82]  V. Presser,et al.  Improved capacitive deionization performance of mixed hydrophobic/hydrophilic activated carbon electrodes , 2016, Journal of physics. Condensed matter : an Institute of Physics journal.

[83]  Jae-Hwan Choi,et al.  Enhanced desalination efficiency in capacitive deionization with an ion-selective membrane , 2010 .

[84]  K. Kaneko,et al.  Titania coating of a microporous carbon surface by molecular adsorption-deposition , 1992 .

[85]  Jian Wang,et al.  Oxygen reduction electrocatalyst based on strongly coupled cobalt oxide nanocrystals and carbon nanotubes. , 2012, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[86]  F. Du,et al.  Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Nanotube Arrays with High Electrocatalytic Activity for Oxygen Reduction , 2009, Science.

[87]  Yuping Wu,et al.  Enhanced capacitive desalination of MnO2 by forming composite with multi-walled carbon nanotubes , 2016 .

[88]  Haibo Li,et al.  Improved capacitive deionization performance by coupling TiO2 nanoparticles with carbon nanotubes , 2016 .

[89]  Wei Xia,et al.  The formation of nitrogen-containing functional groups on carbon nanotube surfaces: a quantitative XPS and TPD study. , 2010, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[90]  Wangwang Tang,et al.  Faradaic Reactions in Water Desalination by Batch-Mode Capacitive Deionization , 2016 .

[91]  H. Alshareef,et al.  High performance supercapacitors using metal oxide anchored graphene nanosheet electrodes , 2011 .

[92]  Heidelberg,et al.  Attractive forces in microporous carbon electrodes for capacitive deionization , 2013, Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry.

[93]  Guodong Li,et al.  A flexible and monolithic nanocomposite aerogel of carbon nanofibers and crystalline titania: fabrication and applications , 2013 .

[94]  M. Elimelech,et al.  The Future of Seawater Desalination: Energy, Technology, and the Environment , 2011, Science.

[95]  Yongli He,et al.  Raman scattering study on anatase TiO2 nanocrystals , 2000 .

[96]  Taizhong Huang,et al.  Reduced graphene oxide supported TiO2 as high performance catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction , 2016 .

[97]  C. Ma,et al.  Effects of activated carbon characteristics on the electrosorption capacity of titanium dioxide/activated carbon composite electrode materials prepared by a microwave-assisted ionothermal synthesis method. , 2015, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[98]  K. Loh,et al.  A Graphene Oxide and Copper‐Centered Metal Organic Framework Composite as a Tri‐Functional Catalyst for HER, OER, and ORR , 2013 .

[99]  M. Diallo,et al.  Nanomaterials and Water Purification: Opportunities and Challenges , 2005 .

[100]  Shouheng Sun,et al.  Co/CoO nanoparticles assembled on graphene for electrochemical reduction of oxygen. , 2012, Angewandte Chemie.

[101]  Linda Zou,et al.  Development of novel MnO2/nanoporous carbon composite electrodes in capacitive deionization technology , 2011 .