Environmental and human exposure to persistent halogenated compounds derived from e‐waste in China

Various classes of persistent halogenated compounds (PHCs) can be released into the environment due to improper handling and disposal of electronic waste (e-waste), which creates severe environmental problems and poses hazards to human health as well. In this review, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), polybrominated phenols (PBPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PBDD/Fs), and chlorinated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (ClPAHs) are the main target contaminants for examination. As the world's largest importer and recycler of e-waste, China has been under tremendous pressure to deal with this huge e-waste situation. This review assesses the magnitude of the e-waste problems in China based on data obtained from the last several years, during which many significant investigations have been conducted. Comparative analyses of the concentrations of several classes of toxic compounds, in which e-waste recycling sites are compared with reference sites in China, have indicated that improper e-waste handling affects the environment of dismantling sites more than that of control sites. An assessment of the annual mass loadings of PBDEs, PBBs, TBBPA, PBPs, PCDD/Fs, and ClPAHs from e-waste in China has shown that PBDEs are the dominant components of PHCs in e-waste, followed by ClPAHs and PCDD/Fs. The annual loadings of PBDEs, ClPAHs, and PCDD/Fs emission were estimated to range from 76,200 to 182,000, 900 to 2,000 and 3 to 8 kg/year, respectively. However, PCDD/Fs and ClPAHs should not be neglected because they are also primarily released from e-waste recycling processes. Overall, the magnitude of human exposure to these toxics in e-waste sites in China is at the high end of the global range.

[1]  Ming H Wong,et al.  Trace metal contamination of sediments in an e-waste processing village in China. , 2007, Environmental pollution.

[2]  E. Abad,et al.  Results and evaluation of the first study of organochlorine contaminants (PCDDs, PCDFs, PCBs and DDTs), heavy metals and metalloids in birds from Baja California, México. , 2005, Environmental pollution.

[3]  C. Lee,et al.  Level of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans and biphenyls (PCDD/Fs, PCBs) in human milk and the input to infant body burden. , 2004, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[4]  R. Draxler,et al.  Modeling the atmospheric transport and deposition of PCDD/F to the Great Lakes. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[5]  Wen Li,et al.  Prenatal exposures to persistent organic pollutants as measured in cord blood and meconium from three localities of Zhejiang, China. , 2007, The Science of the total environment.

[6]  Wenhua Wang,et al.  Chlorinated and parent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in environmental samples from an electronic waste recycling facility and a chemical industrial complex in China. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[7]  Arnold Schecter,et al.  Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in U.S. mothers' milk. , 2003, Environmental health perspectives.

[8]  Thanh Wang.  E-waste creates hot spots for POPs. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[9]  Gaofeng Zhao,et al.  Burdens of PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs in tissues of the cancer patients in the e-waste disassembly sites in Zhejiang, China. , 2009, The Science of the total environment.

[10]  Adnan Aydin,et al.  Evidence of excessive releases of metals from primitive e-waste processing in Guiyu, China. , 2007, Environmental pollution.

[11]  Janet Kit Yan Chan,et al.  Environmental impact and human exposure to PCBs in Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling site in China. , 2009, Environment international.

[12]  F. Renaud,et al.  A review of the environmental fate and effects of hazardous substances released from electrical and electronic equipments during recycling: Examples from China and India , 2010 .

[13]  Xiao-jun Luo,et al.  Persistent halogenated compounds in waterbirds from an e-waste recycling region in South China. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[14]  M. Schuhmacher,et al.  PCDD/F levels in the neighbourhood of a municipal solid waste incinerator after introduction of technical improvements in the facility. , 2002, Environment international.

[15]  Zhang Jun-hui,et al.  Eco-toxicity and metal contamination of paddy soil in an e-wastes recycling area. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[16]  Hiroyuki Nakazawa,et al.  Development of an analysis method for polybrominated diphenyl ethers and their levels in Japanese human Mother's milk , 2002 .

[17]  T. Amagai,et al.  Discovery of novel halogenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban particulate matters: occurrence, photostability, and AhR activity. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[18]  M. Tysklind,et al.  Multivariate data analyses of chlorinated and brominated contaminants and biological characteristics in adult guillemot (Uria aalge) from the Baltic Sea. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[19]  A. Tsatsakis,et al.  Hair analysis: another approach for the assessment of human exposure to selected persistent organochlorine pollutants. , 2002, Chemosphere.

[20]  Ming H Wong,et al.  Body loadings and health risk assessment of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans at an intensive electronic waste recycling site in China. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[21]  R. Hites,et al.  Polychlorinated biphenyls in tree bark , 1990 .

[22]  Xiaojun Luo,et al.  Riverine inputs of polybrominated diphenyl ethers from the Pearl River Delta (China) to the coastal ocean. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[23]  W. Deng,et al.  Distribution of PBDEs in air particles from an electronic waste recycling site compared with Guangzhou and Hong Kong, South China. , 2007, Environment international.

[24]  S. Sakai,et al.  Potential source and emission analysis of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in China. , 2008, Chemosphere.

[25]  C. L. Wienburg,et al.  Factors influencing liver PCB concentrations in sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus), kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and herons (Ardea cinerea) in Britain. , 2004, Environmental pollution.

[26]  Chris Halliwell,et al.  Preliminary assessment of U.K. human dietary and inhalation exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers. , 2004, Environmental science & technology.

[27]  Ming H Wong,et al.  Heavy metals concentrations of surface dust from e-waste recycling and its human health implications in southeast China. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[28]  R. Hites,et al.  Environmental fate of combustion-generated polychlorinated dioxins and furans. , 1984, Environmental science & technology.

[29]  F. Yamashita,et al.  Levels and Concentration Ratios of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Serum and Breast Milk in Japanese Mothers , 2006, Environmental health perspectives.

[30]  Masahiro Osako,et al.  Leaching of brominated flame retardants from TV housing plastics in the presence of dissolved humic matter. , 2009, Chemosphere.

[31]  B. Braune,et al.  Organochlorines and trace elements in upland game birds harvested in Canada. , 2006, The Science of the total environment.

[32]  G. Clark,et al.  Dioxin concentration in human milk in Hebei province in China and Tokyo, Japan: potential dietary risk factors and determination of possible sources. , 2006, Chemosphere.

[33]  M. Kawano,et al.  Accumulation Profiles of Persistent Organochlorines in Waterbirds from an Estuary in Korea , 2001, Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[34]  Brajesh Dubey,et al.  Aquatic Toxicity of Leachates Generated from Electronic Devices , 2007, Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[35]  Yiping Xu,et al.  PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs levels in hair of residents around e-waste disassembly sites in Zhejiang Province, China, and their potential sources. , 2008, The Science of the total environment.

[36]  Francis L Martin,et al.  Exposure of electronics dismantling workers to polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated biphenyls, and organochlorine pesticides in South China. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[37]  E. Zeng,et al.  Law enforcement and global collaboration are the keys to containing e-waste tsunami in China. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[38]  Richard Stone,et al.  China. Confronting a toxic blowback from the electronics trade. , 2009, Science.

[39]  Ming H Wong,et al.  Spatial distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in soil and combusted residue at Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling site in southeast China. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[40]  M. Wong,et al.  Chemical and ecotoxicological analyses of sediments and elutriates of contaminated rivers due to e-waste recycling activities using a diverse battery of bioassays. , 2009, Environmental pollution.

[41]  Xiaojun Luo,et al.  Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in birds of prey from Northern China. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[42]  O. Hutzinger,et al.  Dioxin danger from garbage incineration. , 1986, Analytical chemistry.

[43]  Y. Chong,et al.  Determination and occurrence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in maternal adipose tissue from inhabitants of Singapore. , 2005, Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences.

[44]  M. Eens,et al.  Accumulation of organochlorines and brominated flame retardants in the eggs and nestlings of great tits, Parus major. , 2006, Environmental science & technology.

[45]  Boris Johnson-Restrepo,et al.  Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated biphenyls in human adipose tissue from New York. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[46]  Xiaojun Luo,et al.  Persistent halogenated hydrocarbons in consumer fish of China: regional and global implications for human exposure. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[47]  Qinghua Zhang,et al.  High levels of heavy metals in rice (Oryza sativa L.) from a typical E-waste recycling area in southeast China and its potential risk to human health. , 2008, Chemosphere.

[48]  Yawei Wang,et al.  Concentrations, profiles and gas-particle partitioning of PCDD/Fs, PCBs and PBDEs in the ambient air of an E-waste dismantling area, southeast China , 2008 .

[49]  S. Tanabe,et al.  Persistent organochlorines in human breast milk collected from primiparae in Dalian and Shenyang, China. , 2004, Environmental pollution.

[50]  Guoying Sheng,et al.  Pollution characterization and diurnal variation of PBDEs in the atmosphere of an E-waste dismantling region. , 2009, Environmental pollution.

[51]  P. Grandjean,et al.  Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and traditional organochlorine pollutants in fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) from the Faroe Islands. , 2005, Chemosphere.

[52]  Rolf Widmer,et al.  Global perspectives on e-waste , 2005 .

[53]  K. Norén,et al.  Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Swedish Human Liver and Adipose Tissue , 2001, Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[54]  Huaidong Zhou,et al.  PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs in foods collected from e-waste disassembly sites and daily intake by local residents. , 2009, The Science of the total environment.

[55]  C. Chen,et al.  The emission inventory of PCDD/PCDF in Taiwan. , 2004, Chemosphere.

[56]  T. Albanis,et al.  Accumulation profiles of persistent organochlorines in liver and fat tissues of various waterbird species from Greece. , 2006, Chemosphere.

[57]  Wenhua Wang,et al.  Concentrations, profiles, and estimated human exposures for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans from electronic waste recycling facilities and a chemical industrial complex in Eastern China. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[58]  K. Norén,et al.  Analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in Swedish human milk. A time-related trend study, 1972-1997. , 1999, Journal of toxicology and environmental health. Part A.

[59]  Oladele A. Ogunseitan,et al.  The Electronics Revolution: From E-Wonderland to E-Wasteland , 2009, Science.

[60]  T. Albanis,et al.  Persistent Organochlorine Contaminants in Liver and Fat of Birds of Prey from Greece , 2006, Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[61]  Safe,et al.  Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs for humans and wildlife. , 1998, Environmental health perspectives.

[62]  T. Ohura,et al.  Occurrence and profiles of chlorinated and brominated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in waste incinerators. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[63]  Jiping Zhu,et al.  Passive sampling survey of polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants in indoor and outdoor air in Ottawa, Canada: implications for sources and exposure. , 2004, Environmental science & technology.

[64]  Ming H Wong,et al.  Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans pollution in China: sources, environmental levels and potential human health impacts. , 2008, Environment international.

[65]  Xiao-Jun Luo,et al.  Occurrence of brominated flame retardants other than polybrominated diphenyl ethers in environmental and biota samples from southern China. , 2009, Chemosphere.

[66]  C. D. de Wit,et al.  Higher brominated diphenyl ethers and hexabromocyclododecane found in eggs of peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) breeding in Sweden. , 2004, Environmental science & technology.

[67]  Louis W. Chang,et al.  Infant exposure to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans and biphenyls (PCDD/Fs, PCBs)--correlation between prenatal and postnatal exposure. , 2004, Chemosphere.

[68]  Y. Hirai,et al.  Levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in China and chemometric analysis of potential emission sources. , 2008, Chemosphere.

[69]  Guoying Sheng,et al.  Severe PCDD/F and PBDD/F pollution in air around an electronic waste dismantling area in China. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[70]  L. Hardell,et al.  Decreased survival in pancreatic cancer patients with high concentrations of organochlorines in adipose tissue. , 2007, Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie.

[71]  Huaidong Zhou,et al.  Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDDs/PCDFs) levels in environmental and human hair samples around an electronic waste processing site in Guiyu, Guangdong Province, China , 2002 .

[72]  Sheng Wen,et al.  Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) monitored by tree bark in an E-waste recycling area. , 2009, Chemosphere.

[73]  Eric B Higley,et al.  Relative potencies of individual chlorinated and brominated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons for induction of aryl hydrocarbon receptor-mediated responses. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[74]  A. Binelli,et al.  POPs in edible clams from different Italian and European markets and possible human health risk. , 2003, Marine pollution bulletin.

[75]  T. Vartiainen,et al.  PBDEs and PBBs in the adipose tissue of women from Spain. , 2007, Chemosphere.

[76]  Edward Kavazanjian,et al.  Environmental, social, and economic implications of global reuse and recycling of personal computers. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[77]  Sheng Wen,et al.  Elevated levels of urinary 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine in male electrical and electronic equipment dismantling workers exposed to high concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and polychlorinated biphenyls. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[78]  L. Verschaeve,et al.  Health risk assessment of dioxin emissions from municipal waste incinerators: the Neerlandquarter (Wilrijk, Belgium). , 2001, Chemosphere.

[79]  P. B. Larsen,et al.  Polybrominated diphenyl ethers: occurrence, dietary exposure, and toxicology. , 2001, Environmental health perspectives.

[80]  Deepali Sinha Khetriwal,et al.  Producer responsibility for e-waste management: key issues for consideration - learning from the Swiss experience. , 2009, Journal of environmental management.

[81]  Jing Yuan,et al.  Elevated serum polybrominated diphenyl ethers and thyroid-stimulating hormone associated with lymphocytic micronuclei in Chinese workers from an E-waste dismantling site. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[82]  Q. Zhao,et al.  Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Leaves and Soil from Typical Electronic Waste Polluted Area in South China , 2008, Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[83]  Jean-François Focant,et al.  Retrospective time-trend study of polybrominated diphenyl ether and polybrominated and polychlorinated biphenyl levels in human serum from the United States. , 2004, Environmental health perspectives.