National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism report on moderate drinking.

In support of the 2005 update of the U.S. Department of Agriculture/U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Dietary Guidelines, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism was asked to assess the strength of the evidence related to health risks and potential benefits of moderate alcohol consumption, with particular focus on the areas of cardiovascular disease, breast cancer, obesity, birth defects, breastfeeding, and aging. The findings were reviewed by external researchers with extensive research backgrounds on the consequences and benefits of alcohol consumption. This report now serves as the National Institutes of Health's formal position paper on the health risks and potential benefits of moderate alcohol use.

[1]  E. Sacanella,et al.  Differential Effects of Moderate or Heavy Alcohol Consumption on Circulating Adhesion Molecule Levels , 2002, Thrombosis and Haemostasis.

[2]  Ting-kai Li,et al.  Research advances in ethanol metabolism. , 2001, Pathologie-biologie.

[3]  T. Truelsen,et al.  Amount and type of alcohol and risk of dementia , 2002, Neurology.

[4]  M. Goldberg,et al.  Association between alcohol consumption and postmenopausal breast cancer: results of a case–control study in Montreal, Quebec, Canada , 2002, Cancer Causes & Control.

[5]  S. Wells,et al.  Aggression involving alcohol: relationship to drinking patterns and social context. , 2003, Addiction.

[6]  M. Salaspuro,et al.  High acetaldehyde levels in saliva after ethanol consumption: methodological aspects and pathogenetic implications. , 1997, Carcinogenesis.

[7]  J. Jacobson,et al.  Relation of maternal age and pattern of pregnancy drinking to functionally significant cognitive deficit in infancy. , 1998, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[8]  M. Tagawa,et al.  Genotype Difference of Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 2 Gene in Alcohol Drinkers Influences the Incidence of Japanese Colorectal Cancer Patients , 1999, Japanese journal of cancer research : Gann.

[9]  T. Beresford,et al.  The influences of age and gender on blood ethanol concentrations in healthy humans. , 1999, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[10]  G. Corrao,et al.  A meta-analysis of alcohol drinking and cancer risk , 2001, British Journal of Cancer.

[11]  J. Connett,et al.  Alcohol volume, drinking pattern, and cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality: is there a U-shaped function? , 2002, American journal of epidemiology.

[12]  D. Siscovick,et al.  Alcohol Consumption and Subclinical Findings on Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain in Older Adults: The Cardiovascular Health Study , 2001, Stroke.

[13]  K. Richard Ridderinkhof,et al.  Alcohol Consumption Impairs Detection of Performance Errors in Mediofrontal Cortex , 2002, Science.

[14]  K. Reynolds,et al.  Alcohol consumption and risk of stroke: a meta-analysis. , 2003, JAMA.

[15]  J. Manson,et al.  A cross-sectional study of alcohol consumption patterns and biologic markers of glycemic control among 459 women. , 2003, Diabetes care.

[16]  J. Endicott,et al.  Course of DSM-IV alcohol dependence in a community sample: effects of parental history and binge drinking. , 2001, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[17]  V. Purohit.  Moderate alcohol consumption and estrogen levels in postmenopausal women: a review. , 1998, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[18]  S. Tyas.  Alcohol Use and the Risk of Developing Alzheimer’s Disease , 2001, Alcohol research & health : the journal of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

[19]  L. Wickstrom,et al.  SALMONELLAS IN MEAT. , 1964, Lancet.

[20]  M. Khoury,et al.  A case-control study of maternal alcohol consumption and intrauterine growth retardation. , 2001, Annals of epidemiology.

[21]  B. Stoll,et al.  Alcohol intake and late-stage promotion of breast cancer. , 1999, European journal of cancer.

[22]  Albert Hofman,et al.  Alcohol consumption and risk of dementia: the Rotterdam Study , 2002, The Lancet.

[23]  M. Trevisan,et al.  Average Volume of Alcohol Consumption, Patterns of Drinking and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease - A Review , 2003 .

[24]  J. Chang-Claude,et al.  Low-to-moderate alcohol consumption and breast cancer risk by age 50 years among women in Germany. , 2001, American journal of epidemiology.

[25]  G. Beauchamp,et al.  The transfer of alcohol to human milk. Effects on flavor and the infant's behavior. , 1991, The New England journal of medicine.

[26]  Hanne Tønnesen,et al.  Population based cohort study of the association between alcohol intake and cancer of the upper digestive tract , 1998, BMJ.

[27]  H. Grenett,et al.  Ethanol transcriptionally upregulates t-PA and u-PA gene expression in cultured human endothelial cells. , 1998, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[28]  M. Cesari,et al.  Dose-related impact of alcohol consumption on cognitive function in advanced age: results of a multicenter survey. , 2001, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[29]  D. Levy,et al.  Alcohol consumption and hemostatic factors: analysis of the Framingham Offspring cohort. , 2002 .

[30]  G. Richardson,et al.  Prenatal alcohol use and offspring size at 10 years of age. , 1999, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[31]  G. Gmel,et al.  Relation between Average Alcohol Consumption and Disease: An Overview , 2001, European Addiction Research.

[32]  P. Macfarlane,et al.  Metabolic Syndrome With and Without C-Reactive Protein as a Predictor of Coronary Heart Disease and Diabetes in the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study , 2003, Circulation.

[33]  J. Mennella.  Short-term effects of maternal alcohol consumption on lactational performance. , 1998, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[34]  J. Manson,et al.  Light-to-moderate alcohol consumption and mortality in the Physicians' Health Study enrollment cohort. , 2000, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[35]  S. Smith,et al.  Increased cell death and reduced neural crest cell numbers in ethanol-exposed embryos: partial basis for the fetal alcohol syndrome phenotype. , 1995, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[36]  L. Salamat,et al.  A case-control dietary study of primary liver cancer risk from aflatoxin exposure. , 1982, International journal of epidemiology.

[37]  F. Bookstein,et al.  Maternal drinking during pregnancy: attention and short-term memory in 14-year-old offspring--a longitudinal prospective study. , 1994, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[38]  R. Little,et al.  Maternal Alcohol Use during Breast-Feeding and Infant Mental and Motor Development at One Year , 1989 .

[39]  E. Rimm,et al.  Moderate alcohol consumption and coronary heart disease: a review , 2001, Postgraduate medical journal.

[40]  R. Wiggins,et al.  Brain myelination in the offspring of ethanol-treated rats: in Utero versus lactational exposure by crossfostering offspring of control, pairfed and ethanol treated dams , 1984, Brain Research.

[41]  P. Taylor,et al.  Effects of moderate alcohol intake on fasting insulin and glucose concentrations and insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial. , 2002, JAMA.

[42]  H. Grenett,et al.  Alcohol-induced up-regulation of fibrinolytic activity and plasminogen activators in human monocytes. , 2002, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[43]  Y. Ida Chen,et al.  Light-to-Moderate Alcohol Intake Is Associated With Enhanced Insulin Sensitivity , 1994, Diabetes Care.

[44]  P. Durrington,et al.  Paraoxonase and Atherosclerosis , 2001, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[45]  I. Corbin,et al.  Light ethanol consumption enhances liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy in rats. , 2000, Gastroenterology.

[46]  D. Vlahov,et al.  The natural history of hepatitis C virus infection: host, viral, and environmental factors. , 2000, JAMA.

[47]  B. Zumoff,et al.  The critical role of alcohol consumption in determining the risk of breast cancer with postmenopausal estrogen administration. , 1997, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[48]  R. Knill-Jones,et al.  Tobacco and alcohol use during pregnancy and risk of oral clefts. Occupational Exposure and Congenital Malformation Working Group. , 2000, American journal of public health.

[49]  K. Jablonski,et al.  Alcohol intake and glycemia in American Indians: the strong heart study. , 2003, Metabolism: clinical and experimental.

[50]  R. Klein,et al.  Ten-year incidence of age-related maculopathy and smoking and drinking: the Beaver Dam Eye Study. , 2002, American journal of epidemiology.

[51]  M. Subramanian,et al.  Alcohol inhibits suckling-induced prolactin release and milk yield. , 1988, Alcohol.

[52]  L. Beilin,et al.  The effects of alcohol on coagulation and fibrinolytic factors: a controlled trial. , 1998, Blood coagulation & fibrinolysis : an international journal in haemostasis and thrombosis.

[53]  David W. Smith,et al.  Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy. , 1973, Lancet.

[54]  J. Buring,et al.  Light-to-moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of stroke among U.S. male physicians. , 1999, The New England journal of medicine.

[55]  A. Miller,et al.  Alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer: a cohort study , 2000, Cancer Causes & Control.

[56]  S. Juvela,et al.  Alcohol Intake and the Risk of Stroke , 1999, Journal of cardiovascular risk.

[57]  J. Mennella.  Infants' suckling responses to the flavor of alcohol in mothers' milk. , 1997, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[58]  F. Speizer,et al.  Alcohol and breast cancer in women: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. , 1998, JAMA.

[59]  T. Kawai,et al.  Maternal risk factors in cleft lip and palate: case control study. , 2000, The British journal of oral & maxillofacial surgery.

[60]  A. Shaper,et al.  Alcohol, body weight, and weight gain in middle-aged men. , 2003, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[61]  A. Tjønneland,et al.  Alcohol intake, drinking patterns and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in Denmark: a prospective cohort study , 2003, Cancer Causes & Control.

[62]  G. Gmel,et al.  How stable is the risk curve between alcohol and all-cause mortality and what factors influence the shape? A precision-weighted hierarchical meta-analysis , 2002, European Journal of Epidemiology.

[63]  R. Sutherland,et al.  Dose-dependent effects of prenatal ethanol exposure on synaptic plasticity and learning in mature offspring. , 2002, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[64]  V. Kataja,et al.  Lifetime alcohol consumption and breast cancer: a case–control study in Finland , 2000, Public Health Nutrition.

[65]  D. Commenges,et al.  Wine consumption and dementia in the elderly: a prospective community study in the Bordeaux area. , 1997, Revue neurologique.

[66]  E. Ginsburg.  Estrogen, alcohol and breast cancer risk , 1999, The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology.

[67]  D. Agarwal,et al.  High salivary acetaldehyde after a moderate dose of alcohol in ALDH2-deficient subjects: strong evidence for the local carcinogenic action of acetaldehyde. , 2000, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[68]  M. Böhm,et al.  Alcohol and the risk of myocardial infarction , 2001, Basic Research in Cardiology.

[69]  G. Beauchamp,et al.  Infants' exploration of scented toys: effects of prior experiences. , 1998, Chemical senses.

[70]  J. Rehm,et al.  Moderate drinking and health. Implications of recent evidence. , 1997, Canadian family physician Medecin de famille canadien.

[71]  Ting-kai Li,et al.  Effect of Food and Food Composition on Alcohol Elimination Rates in Healthy Men and Women , 2001, Journal of clinical pharmacology.

[72]  R. Klein,et al.  Alcohol consumption and the 5-year incidence of age-related maculopathy: the Beaver Dam eye study. , 1998, Ophthalmology.

[73]  C. Tiribelli,et al.  Clinical course and risk factors of hepatitis C virus related liver disease in the general population: report from the Dionysos study , 1999, Gut.

[74]  L. Seeff,et al.  The Relationship of Acute Transfusion-Associated Hepatitis to the Development of Cirrhosis in the Presence of Alcohol Abuse , 2001, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[75]  Z. Tian,et al.  Dose-dependent Activation of Antiapoptotic and Proapoptotic Pathways by Ethanol Treatment in Human Vascular Endothelial Cells , 2002, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[76]  B. Winblad,et al.  Alcohol consumption and incidence of dementia in a community sample aged 75 years and older. , 2002, Journal of clinical epidemiology.

[77]  S. Porru,et al.  Alcohol and hepatocellular carcinoma: the effect of lifetime intake and hepatitis virus infections in men and women. , 2002, American journal of epidemiology.

[78]  M. Paula-Barbosa,et al.  Remodeling of the cerebellar glomeruli after long-term alcohol consumption in the adult rat , 1984, Brain Research.

[79]  J. Jacobson,et al.  Teratogenic effects of alcohol on infant development. , 1993, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[80]  K. Mukamal.  Alcohol use and prognosis in patients with coronary heart disease. , 2003, Preventive cardiology.

[81]  E. Sacanella,et al.  Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Gene Polymorphism Is Associated with Vulnerability to Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy , 2002, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[82]  J. Mennella.  Alcohol’s Effect on Lactation , 2001, Alcohol research & health : the journal of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

[83]  J. Manson,et al.  A prospective study of alcohol consumption and the risk of age-related macular degeneration. , 1999, Annals of epidemiology.

[84]  E. Rimm,et al.  Prospective study of the association of changes in dietary intake, physical activity, alcohol consumption, and smoking with 9-y gain in waist circumference among 16 587 US men. , 2003, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[85]  W. Willett,et al.  A prospective study of moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of coronary disease and stroke in women. , 1988, The New England journal of medicine.

[86]  E. Rimm.  Alcohol and cardiovascular disease , 2000, Current atherosclerosis reports.

[87]  V. Cipriani,et al.  Moderate alcohol consumption increases oxidative stress in patients with chronic hepatitis C , 2003, Hepatology.

[88]  J. Pawlotsky,et al.  Impact of moderate alcohol consumption on histological activity and fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C, and specific influence of steatosis: a prospective study , 2003, Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics.

[89]  J. West,et al.  Alcohol-induced neuronal loss in developing rats: increased brain damage with binge exposure. , 1990, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[90]  L. White,et al.  A longitudinal study of drinking and cognitive performance in elderly Japanese American men: the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. , 2000, American journal of public health.

[91]  M. E. Charness,et al.  Alcohol inhibits cell-cell adhesion mediated by human L1 [published erratum appears in J Cell Biol 1996 Jun;133(5):1139-40] , 1996, The Journal of cell biology.

[92]  J. Manson,et al.  Alcohol consumption in relation to breast cancer risk in a cohort of United States women 25-42 years of age. , 1999, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[93]  R W Hingson,et al.  Preventing Impaired Driving , 1999, Alcohol research & health : the journal of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

[94]  J Rehm,et al.  Average volume of alcohol consumption, patterns of drinking, and all-cause mortality: results from the US National Alcohol Survey. , 2001, American journal of epidemiology.

[95]  E. Rimm,et al.  Alcohol’s Effects on the Risk for Coronary Heart Disease , 2001, Alcohol research & health : the journal of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

[96]  J. Jacobson,et al.  Effects of fetal alcohol exposure on infant reaction time. , 1994, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[97]  R. Barbieri,et al.  Effects of alcohol ingestion on estrogens in postmenopausal women. , 1996 .

[98]  L. Kuller,et al.  Prospective study of alcohol consumption and risk of dementia in older adults. , 2003, JAMA.

[99]  T. Einarson,et al.  Moderate alcohol consumption during pregnancy and the incidence of fetal malformations: a meta-analysis. , 1998, Neurotoxicology and teratology.

[100]  J. Mennella.  Regulation of milk intake after exposure to alcohol in mothers' milk. , 2001, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[101]  Y. Hiratsuka,et al.  Alcohol and eye diseases: a review of epidemiologic studies. , 2001, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[102]  T. Smith,et al.  A comparison of correlates of DSM-IV alcohol abuse or dependence among more than 400 sons of alcoholics and controls. , 2001, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[103]  A. Brodsky,et al.  Exploring psychological benefits associated with moderate alcohol use: a necessary corrective to assessments of drinking outcomes? , 2000, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[104]  T. Lash,et al.  Alcohol Drinking and Risk of Breast Cancer , 2000, The breast journal.

[105]  L. Goldschmidt,et al.  Prenatal alcohol and marijuana exposure: effects on neuropsychological outcomes at 10 years. , 2002, Neurotoxicology and teratology.

[106]  M. Grønbæk,et al.  Alcoholic beverage preference, diet, and health habits in the UNC Alumni Heart Study. , 2002, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[107]  S. Lovestone,et al.  Long-term predictors of cognitive outcome in a cohort of older people with hypertension. , 2000, The British journal of psychiatry : the journal of mental science.

[108]  Moderate alcohol intake and spontaneous eating patterns of humans: evidence of unregulated supplementation. , 1990, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[109]  G. Colditz,et al.  Cumulative risk of breast cancer to age 70 years according to risk factor status: data from the Nurses' Health Study. , 2000, American journal of epidemiology.

[110]  Ting-kai Li,et al.  Alcohol dehydrogenase-2*3 allele protects against alcohol-related birth defects among African Americans. , 1997, The Journal of pharmacology and experimental therapeutics.

[111]  M. C. Leske,et al.  Alcohol, tobacco and breast cancer – collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 53 epidemiological studies, including 58 515 women with breast cancer and 95 067 women without the disease , 2002, British Journal of Cancer.

[112]  G. Beauchamp,et al.  Beer, breast feeding, and folklore. , 1993, Developmental psychobiology.

[113]  J. Hung,et al.  Acute and delayed antithrombotic effects of alcohol in humans. , 2001, The American journal of cardiology.

[114]  N. Terrault,et al.  Alcohol use and hepatitis C , 2002, Hepatology.

[115]  M. Cornier,et al.  The effects of chronic ethanol consumption on energy balance in rats. , 2002, Metabolism: clinical and experimental.

[116]  T. Obisesan,et al.  Moderate Wine Consumption Is Associated with Decreased Odds of Developing Age‐Related Macular Degeneration in NHANES‐1 , 1998, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.

[117]  A. Klatsky.  Alcohol and Cardiovascular Diseases , 2002, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[118]  Wen Li,et al.  Moderate levels of ethanol induce expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and stimulate angiogenesis. , 2001, American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology.

[119]  K J Rothman,et al.  Exploring the relation of alcohol consumption to risk of breast cancer. , 2001, American journal of epidemiology.

[120]  L. Castagnetta,et al.  Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Natural History of Hepatocellular Carcinoma , 2002, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[121]  J. Laranjinha,et al.  Inhibition of human LDL lipid peroxidation by phenol-rich beverages and their impact on plasma total antioxidant capacity in humans. , 2000, The Journal of nutritional biochemistry.

[122]  D. Stoffer,et al.  The effects of prenatal alcohol use on the growth of children at three years of age. , 1991, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[123]  H. Hendriks,et al.  Alcohol consumption stimulates early steps in reverse cholesterol transport. , 2001, Journal of lipid research.

[124]  J. Mennella,et al.  Sleep disturbances after acute exposure to alcohol in mothers' milk. , 2001, Alcohol.

[125]  R. Vasan,et al.  Alcohol Consumption and Risk for Congestive Heart Failure in the Framingham Heart Study , 2002, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[126]  J. Jacobson,et al.  Prenatal alcohol exposure and infant information processing ability. , 1993, Child development.

[127]  L. Cupples,et al.  Alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer: the Framingham Study revisited. , 1999, American journal of epidemiology.

[128]  L. Beilin,et al.  Alcohol And Endothelial Function: A Brief Review , 2001, Clinical and experimental pharmacology & physiology.

[129]  S. Villalpando,et al.  Ethanol consumption during pregnancy and lactation. Changes in the nutritional status of predominantly breastfeeding mothers. , 1993, Archives of medical research.

[130]  H. Anton-Culver,et al.  Recent diet and breast cancer risk: the California Teachers Study (USA) , 2002, Cancer Causes & Control.

[131]  U. Kesmodel,et al.  Moderate alcohol intake during pregnancy and the risk of stillbirth and death in the first year of life. , 2002, American journal of epidemiology.

[132]  J. Masters.  Moderate alcohol consumption and unappreciated risk for alcohol-related harm among ethnically diverse, urban-dwelling elders. , 2003, Geriatric nursing.

[133]  W. Chow,et al.  Cigarette and alcohol consumption and the risk of colorectal cancer in Shanghai, China , 2002, European journal of cancer prevention : the official journal of the European Cancer Prevention Organisation.

[134]  A. Camerini,et al.  The relationship between wine consumption and cardiovascular risk: from epidemiological evidence to biological plausibility. , 2001 .

[135]  J. Manson,et al.  Alcohol drinking patterns and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus among younger women. , 2003, Archives of internal medicine.

[136]  B. Quigley,et al.  The effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on infant mental development: a meta-analytical review. , 2003, Alcohol and alcoholism.

[137]  P. Boyle,et al.  Glutathione S-transferase M1 and T1 genetic polymorphisms, alcohol consumption and breast cancer risk , 2003, British Journal of Cancer.

[138]  J. Jacobson,et al.  Validity of maternal report of prenatal alcohol, cocaine, and smoking in relation to neurobehavioral outcome. , 2002, Pediatrics.

[139]  M. Grønbaek.  Factors influencing the relation between alcohol and mortality--with focus on wine. , 2001, Journal of internal medicine.

[140]  R. Room,et al.  Moderate drinking and health: report of an international symposium. , 1994, CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne.

[141]  M. Salaspuro.  Bacteriocolonic pathway for ethanol oxidation: characteristics and implications. , 1996, Annals of medicine.

[142]  S. Coker,et al.  Geriatric trauma in the State of Illinois: Substance use and injury patterns*** , 2002 .

[143]  J. Manson,et al.  Alcohol consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus among US male physicians. , 2000, Archives of internal medicine.

[144]  M. Grønbæk.  Alcohol, type of alcohol, and all-cause and coronary heart disease mortality. , 2002 .

[145]  S. Thorgeirsson,et al.  Ethanol inhibits liver regeneration in rats without reducing transcripts of key protooncogenes. , 1990, Gastroenterology.

[146]  J. Brust.  Wine, flavonoids, and the "water of life". , 2002, Neurology.

[147]  J. Cerhan,et al.  Investigation of an interaction of alcohol intake and family history on breast cancer risk in the Minnesota Breast Cancer Family Study , 2001, Cancer.

[148]  J. Ruf.  Wine and polyphenols related to platelet aggregation and atherothrombosis. , 1999, Drugs under experimental and clinical research.

[149]  L. Tupler,et al.  Alcohol pharmacodynamics in young-elderly adults contrasted with young and middle-aged subjects , 1995, Psychopharmacology.

[150]  A. Schatzkin,et al.  Folate, methionine, alcohol, and colorectal cancer in a prospective study of women in the United States , 2002, Cancer Causes & Control.

[151]  I. Godsland,et al.  Alcohol consumption and insulin resistance in young adults , 2000, European journal of clinical investigation.

[152]  E. Rimm,et al.  Prospective study of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and the risk of diabetes in men , 1995, BMJ.

[153]  P. Taylor,et al.  Moderate alcohol consumption lowers risk factors for cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women fed a controlled diet. , 2002, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[154]  R. Caetano,et al.  Risk functions for alcohol-related problems in a 1988 US national sample. , 1996, Addiction.

[155]  F. Lancaster,et al.  Lactational ethanol exposure: Brain enzymes and [3h]spiroperidol binding , 1986, International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience.

[156]  Jonathan D. Smith,et al.  Alcohol Consumption Raises HDL Cholesterol Levels by Increasing the Transport Rate of Apolipoproteins A-I and A-II , 2000, Circulation.

[157]  D. Stoffer,et al.  Prenatal alcohol exposure and academic achievement at age six: a nonlinear fit. , 1996, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[158]  E. Sacanella,et al.  The Effect of Controlled Drinking in Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy , 2002, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[159]  L. Waite,et al.  Health habits and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in old age: A prospective study on the effects of exercise, smoking and alcohol consumption , 1998, Australian and New Zealand journal of public health.

[160]  C. Johansen,et al.  Relations between amount and type of alcohol and colon and rectal cancer in a Danish population based cohort study , 2003, Gut.

[161]  G. Borges,et al.  The risk of intentional injury with acute and chronic alcohol exposures: a case-control and case-crossover study. , 2003, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[162]  H. Hendriks,et al.  Effect of Moderate Alcohol Consumption on Fibrinogen Levels in Healthy Volunteers Is Discordant with Effects on C‐Reactive Protein , 2001, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[163]  F. Bookstein,et al.  Prenatal alcohol exposure, birthweight, and measures of child size from birth to age 14 years. , 1994, American journal of public health.

[164]  T. Ono,et al.  Age-dependent changes in electroencephalographic responses to alcohol consumption in subjects with aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 genetic variations. , 2003, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[165]  G Corrao,et al.  Alcohol and coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis. , 2000, Addiction.

[166]  L. Oyama,et al.  Effect of Ethanol Intake During Lactation on Male and Female Pups' Liver and Brain Metabolism During the Suckling-Weaning Transition Period , 2003, Nutritional neuroscience.

[167]  E. Rimm,et al.  Prospective study of alcohol consumption and the risk of age-related macular degeneration. , 2000, Archives of ophthalmology.

[168]  Sally Casswell,et al.  Alcohol and injury among attendees at a New Zealand emergency department. , 2003, The New Zealand medical journal.

[169]  P. Bedossa,et al.  Natural history of liver fibrosis progression in patients with chronic hepatitis C , 1997, The Lancet.

[170]  J. Rehm,et al.  Low-risk Drinking Guidelines: The Scientific Evidence , 1999, Canadian journal of public health = Revue canadienne de sante publique.

[171]  Carmen Rodriguez,et al.  The American Cancer Society Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort , 2002, Cancer.

[172]  D. Dawson,et al.  The link between family history and early onset alcoholism: earlier initiation of drinking or more rapid development of dependence? , 2000, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[173]  J. Dixon,et al.  Alcohol consumption in the severely obese: relationship with the metabolic syndrome. , 2002, Obesity research.

[174]  G. Corrao,et al.  Alcohol Consumption and the Risk of Cancer: A Meta-Analysis , 2001 .

[175]  S. Leech,et al.  Prenatal alcohol exposure predicts continued deficits in offspring size at 14 years of age. , 2002, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[176]  B. Griffin,et al.  Lipoprotein atherogenicity: an overview of current mechanisms , 1999, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society.

[177]  M. Polen,et al.  The health and health behaviors of people who do not drink alcohol. , 2001, American journal of preventive medicine.

[178]  J. Ruidavets,et al.  Alcohol consumption is associated with enrichment of high-density lipoprotein particles in polyunsaturated lipids and increased cholesterol esterification rate. , 2002, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[179]  E. Whelan,et al.  The Health Effects of Moderate Alcohol Intake in Humans: An Epidemiologic Review , 2000, Critical reviews in clinical laboratory sciences.

[180]  T. Layden,et al.  Impact of alcohol on the histological and clinical progression of Hepatitis C infection , 1998, Hepatology.

[181]  G. Norkrans,et al.  Moderate alcohol intake increases fibrosis progression in untreated patients with hepatitis C virus infection , 2002, Journal of viral hepatitis.

[182]  E. Rimm,et al.  Roles of drinking pattern and type of alcohol consumed in coronary heart disease in men. , 2003, The New England journal of medicine.

[183]  J. Freudenheim,et al.  Alcohol dehydrogenase 3 genotype modification of the associationof alcohol consumption with breast cancer risk , 1999, Cancer Causes & Control.

[184]  J. Mennella,et al.  Effects of exposure to alcohol in mother's milk on infant sleep. , 1998, Pediatrics.

[185]  T. Koivula,et al.  Alcohol consumption and its relation to lipid-based cardiovascular risk factors among middle-aged women: the role of HDL3 cholesterol , 2000 .

[186]  S. Wannamethee,et al.  Alcohol intake and mortality in middle aged men with diagnosed coronary heart disease , 2000, Heart.

[187]  J. Hill,et al.  Influence of moderate chronic wine consumption on insulin sensitivity and other correlates of syndrome X in moderately obese women. , 2000, Metabolism: clinical and experimental.

[188]  R. Maio,et al.  Violence and substance use among an injured emergency department population. , 2003, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[189]  M J Eckardt,et al.  Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. , 1998, Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research.

[190]  S. Villalpando,et al.  Effects of ethanol consumption during pregnancy and lactation on the outcome and postnatal growth of the offspring. , 1992, Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism.

[191]  N. Pellegrini,et al.  Effects of moderate consumption of red wine on platelet aggregation and haemostatic variables in healthy volunteers. , 1996, European journal of clinical nutrition.

[192]  H. Hendriks,et al.  Kinetics of HDL cholesterol and paraoxonase activity in moderate alcohol consumers , 2002 .

[193]  L. Fratiglioni,et al.  Alcohol and tobacco consumption as risk factors for Alzheimer's disease: a collaborative re-analysis of case-control studies. EURODEM Risk Factors Research Group. , 1991, International journal of epidemiology.

[194]  F. Perera,et al.  The interaction between alcohol consumption and GSTM1 genotype on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adduct levels in breast tissue. , 2003, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[195]  T. Pearson,et al.  What to advise patients about drinking alcohol. The clinician's conundrum. , 1994, JAMA.

[196]  J. Manson,et al.  Use of Postmenopausal Hormones, Alcohol, and Risk for Invasive Breast Cancer , 2002, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[197]  F. Booyse,et al.  Moderate Wine and Alcohol Consumption: Beneficial Effects on Cardiovascular Disease , 2001, Thrombosis and Haemostasis.

[198]  N. Spear,et al.  Enhanced ethanol intake in preweanling rats following exposure to ethanol in a nursing context. , 1993, Developmental psychobiology.

[199]  Alan D. Lopez,et al.  Alcohol consumption and mortality among middle-aged and elderly U.S. adults. , 1997, The New England journal of medicine.

[200]  K. Alberti,et al.  Alcohol consumption and the incidence of type II diabetes , 2002, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[201]  R. Little,et al.  Alcohol, breastfeeding, and development at 18 months. , 2002, Pediatrics.

[202]  H. Deery,et al.  The effect of a moderate dose of alcohol on the traffic hazard perception profile of young drink-drivers. , 1996, Addiction.