Inorganic Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy

ABSTRACTNanotechnology is an evolving field with enormous potential for biomedical applications. The growing interest to use inorganic nanoparticles in medicine is due to the unique size- and shape-dependent optoelectronic properties. Herein, we will focus on gold, silver and platinum nanoparticles, discussing recent developments for therapeutic applications with regard to cancer in terms of nanoparticles being used as a delivery vehicle as well as therapeutic agents. We will also discuss some of the key challenges to be addressed in future studies.

[1]  R. Stafford,et al.  Nanoshell-mediated near-infrared thermal therapy of tumors under magnetic resonance guidance , 2003, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[2]  Petras Juzenas,et al.  Quantum dots and nanoparticles for photodynamic and radiation therapies of cancer. , 2008, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[3]  T. Akaike,et al.  High-efficiency gene delivery for expression in mammalian cells by nanoprecipitates of Ca-Mg phosphate. , 2004, Gene.

[4]  P. Low,et al.  Folate receptor expression in carcinomas and normal tissues determined by a quantitative radioligand binding assay. , 2005, Analytical biochemistry.

[5]  P. Jain,et al.  Au nanoparticles target cancer , 2007 .

[6]  P Wust,et al.  Effects of magnetic fluid hyperthermia (MFH) on C3H mammary carcinoma in vivo. , 1997, International journal of hyperthermia : the official journal of European Society for Hyperthermic Oncology, North American Hyperthermia Group.

[7]  Guoyong Xie,et al.  Gold nanoparticles prepared by sonochemical method in thiol-functionalized ionic liquid , 2007 .

[8]  Chenjie Xu,et al.  FePt nanoparticles as an Fe reservoir for controlled Fe release and tumor inhibition. , 2009, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[9]  Sunita Yadav,et al.  Multi-functional nanocarriers to overcome tumor drug resistance. , 2008, Cancer treatment reviews.

[10]  Dale L. Huber,et al.  Synthesis, Properties, and Applications of Iron Nanoparticles , 2005 .

[11]  Robert Langer,et al.  Targeted delivery of cisplatin to prostate cancer cells by aptamer functionalized Pt(IV) prodrug-PLGA–PEG nanoparticles , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[12]  E. Juban,et al.  Ultrafast dynamics of ligand-field excited states , 2006 .

[13]  Chad A. Mirkin,et al.  Nanostructures in Biodiagnostics , 2005 .

[14]  K. Byrappa,et al.  Nanoparticles synthesis using supercritical fluid technology - towards biomedical applications. , 2008, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[15]  Priyabrata Mukherjee,et al.  Biological properties of "naked" metal nanoparticles. , 2008, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[16]  I. Haiduc,et al.  Rhodium, iridium, copper and gold antitumor organometallic compounds (review). , 1989, In vivo.

[17]  Bing Xu,et al.  FePt@CoS2 Yolk—Shell Nanocrystals as a Potent Agent to Kill HeLa Cells. , 2007 .

[18]  D. Astruc,et al.  Gold nanoparticles: assembly, supramolecular chemistry, quantum-size-related properties, and applications toward biology, catalysis, and nanotechnology. , 2004, Chemical reviews.

[19]  Michihiro Nakamura,et al.  Nanomedicine for drug delivery and imaging: A promising avenue for cancer therapy and diagnosis using targeted functional nanoparticles , 2007, International journal of cancer.

[20]  R. Kalluri,et al.  Endogenous inhibitors of angiogenesis. , 2005, Cancer research.

[21]  Akiyoshi Hoshino,et al.  Water-soluble photoluminescent silicon quantum dots. , 2005, Angewandte Chemie.

[22]  A. Anas,et al.  Photosensitized breakage and damage of DNA by CdSe-ZnS quantum dots. , 2008, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[23]  G Mathé,et al.  Hyperthermic effects on the human metastatic liver: a TEM study. , 1997, Anticancer research.

[24]  D. Mukhopadhyay,et al.  Targeted delivery of gemcitabine to pancreatic adenocarcinoma using cetuximab as a targeting agent. , 2008, Cancer research.

[25]  K. Widder,et al.  Selective targeting of magnetic albumin microspheres containing low-dose doxorubicin: total remission in Yoshida sarcoma-bearing rats. , 1983, European journal of cancer & clinical oncology.

[26]  R. Gust,et al.  Photoinduced CO release, cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of a tris(pyrazolyl)methane (tpm) manganese tricarbonyl complex. , 2008, Chemical communications.

[27]  G. Chanfreau,et al.  Hydroxyl radical is the active species in photochemical DNA strand scission by bis(peroxo)vanadium(V) phenanthroline. , 2004, Inorganic chemistry.

[28]  P. Sadler,et al.  Photoactivatable platinum complexes. , 2007, Anti-cancer agents in medicinal chemistry.

[29]  R. Kerbel.  Antiangiogenic drugs and current strategies for the treatment of lung cancer. , 2004, Seminars in oncology.

[30]  R. Kumar,et al.  Characterization and catalytic activity of gold nanoparticles synthesized by autoreduction of aqueous chloroaurate ions with fumed silica , 2002 .

[31]  Alain M. Jonas,et al.  Synthesis of gold nanoparticles inside polyelectrolyte brushes , 2007 .

[32]  E. W. Hahn,et al.  The prevention of Ehrlich ascites tumor using intraperitoneal colloidal 198Au. Dose vs. size of inoculum. , 1975, Radiology.

[33]  Mark Emberton,et al.  Photodynamic therapy for prostate cancer—a review of current status and future promise , 2009, Nature Clinical Practice Urology.

[34]  V. Zurawski,et al.  Cloning of a tumor-associated antigen: MOv18 and MOv19 antibodies recognize a folate-binding protein. , 1991, Cancer research.

[35]  Kai Zhang,et al.  Techniques for delivery and monitoring of TOOKAD(WST09)-mediated photodynamic therapy of the prostate: clinical experience and practicalities , 2005, SPIE BiOS.

[36]  R. Kerbel,et al.  Reanalysis of Cancer Drugs , 2004, Clinical Cancer Research.

[37]  R. Buckley,et al.  Comparison of two colorimetric assays as cytotoxicity endpoints for an in vitro screen for antitumour agents. , 1996, Anticancer Research.

[38]  S. Wise.  Nanocarriers as an emerging platform for cancer therapy , 2007 .

[39]  Edward S. Kim,et al.  IMC-C225, an anti-epidermal growth factor receptor monoclonal antibody, for treatment of head and neck cancer , 2001, Seminars in oncology.

[40]  S. Seal,et al.  Superoxide dismutase mimetic properties exhibited by vacancy engineered ceria nanoparticles. , 2007, Chemical communications.

[41]  J. Folkman,et al.  Proceedings: Tumor angiogenesis factor. , 1974, Cancer research.

[42]  P. Sadler,et al.  Synthesis, characterisation and photochemistry of Pt(IV) pyridyl azido acetato complexes. , 2009, Dalton transactions.

[43]  Russell J Mumper,et al.  Comparison of cell uptake, biodistribution and tumor retention of folate-coated and PEG-coated gadolinium nanoparticles in tumor-bearing mice. , 2004, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[44]  Wang Xiaoliang,et al.  Acute toxicity and irritation of water-based dextran-coated magnetic fluid injected in mice. , 2008, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.

[45]  C. Yeh,et al.  Comparative efficiencies of photothermal destruction of malignant cells using antibody-coated silica@Au nanoshells, hollow Au/Ag nanospheres and Au nanorods , 2009, Nanotechnology.

[46]  D. Leslie-Pelecky,et al.  Biodistribution, clearance, and biocompatibility of iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles in rats. , 2008, Molecular pharmaceutics.

[47]  J. Barton,et al.  DNA base mismatch detection with bulky rhodium intercalators: synthesis and applications , 2007, Nature Protocols.

[48]  Michele Follen,et al.  Real-time vital optical imaging of precancer using anti-epidermal growth factor receptor antibodies conjugated to gold nanoparticles. , 2003, Cancer research.

[49]  S. Banfi,et al.  Oxidative cleavage of plasmid bluescript by water-soluble Mn-porphyrins and artificial oxidants or molecular oxygen. , 2003, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry.

[50]  Nancy L Oleinick,et al.  The role of apoptosis in response to photodynamic therapy: what, where, why, and how , 2002, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[51]  Ajay Kumar Gupta,et al.  Recent advances on surface engineering of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and their biomedical applications. , 2007, Nanomedicine.

[52]  M. Sastry.  Bioreduction of AuCl‐4 Ions by the Fungus, Verticillium sp. and Surface Trapping of the Gold Nanoparticles Formed. , 2001 .

[53]  A. Dunn,et al.  Near real time confocal microscopy of cultured amelanotic cells: sources of signal, contrast agents and limits of contrast. , 1998, Journal of biomedical optics.

[54]  P. Jain,et al.  Calculated absorption and scattering properties of gold nanoparticles of different size, shape, and composition: applications in biological imaging and biomedicine. , 2006, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[55]  Xiaohua Huang,et al.  Cancer cell imaging and photothermal therapy in the near-infrared region by using gold nanorods. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[56]  Vincent M Rotello,et al.  Inhibition of chymotrypsin through surface binding using nanoparticle-based receptors , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[57]  H. Naik,et al.  Mixed ligand Ni(II) complexes: DNA binding, oxidative and photo-cleavage studies , 2008 .

[58]  S. W. Root,et al.  Intracavitary colloidal radiogold in the treatment of effusions caused by malignant neoplasms. , 1953, Annals of surgery.

[59]  S. Rogelj,et al.  Design of a highly sensitive and specific nucleotide sensor based on photon upconverting particles. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[60]  J. Moan,et al.  Generation of Nitrogen Oxide and Oxygen Radicals by Quantum Dots , 2008 .

[61]  Yong Zhang,et al.  Singlet oxygen-induced apoptosis of cancer cells using upconversion fluorescent nanoparticles as a carrier of photosensitizer. , 2010, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[62]  James W Tunnell,et al.  Modulation of in vivo tumor radiation response via gold nanoshell-mediated vascular-focused hyperthermia: characterizing an integrated antihypoxic and localized vascular disrupting targeting strategy. , 2008, Nano letters.

[63]  M. Dobrovolskaia,et al.  Immunological properties of engineered nanomaterials , 2007, Nature Nanotechnology.

[64]  B. Lai,et al.  Gadolinium-conjugated TiO2-DNA oligonucleotide nanoconjugates show prolonged intracellular retention period and T1-weighted contrast enhancement in magnetic resonance images. , 2008, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[65]  M. Fung,et al.  Systemic argyria associated with ingestion of colloidal silver. , 2005, Dermatology online journal.

[66]  H. Lane,et al.  ERBB receptors and cancer: the complexity of targeted inhibitors , 2005, Nature Reviews Cancer.

[67]  C. Reynolds,et al.  Towards new transition metal-based hypoxic selective agents for therapy and imaging. , 2001, Journal of inorganic biochemistry.

[68]  Katsumi Kobayashi,et al.  Platinum nanoparticles: a promising material for future cancer therapy? , 2010, Nanotechnology.

[69]  D. Felson,et al.  The comparative efficacy and toxicity of second-line drugs in rheumatoid arthritis. Results of two metaanalyses. , 1990, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[70]  J. Folkman.  Tumor angiogensis: role in regulation of tumor growth. , 1974, The ... Symposium. Society for Developmental Biology. Symposium.

[71]  Ajay Kumar Gupta,et al.  Synthesis and surface engineering of iron oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[72]  Beverly A Rzigalinski,et al.  Cadmium-containing nanoparticles: perspectives on pharmacology and toxicology of quantum dots. , 2009, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[73]  B. Lai,et al.  Original Article: Diagnosis Gadolinium-conjugated TiO 2 -DNA oligonucleotide nanoconjugates show prolonged intracellular retention period and T1-weighted contrast enhancement in magnetic resonance images , 2008 .

[74]  A. Gedanken,et al.  A microwave-assisted polyol method for the deposition of silver nanoparticles on silica spheres , 2007 .

[75]  J. Hillier,et al.  A study of the nucleation and growth processes in the synthesis of colloidal gold , 1951 .

[76]  P. Richardson,et al.  Bortezomib: proteasome inhibition as an effective anticancer therapy. , 2005, Future oncology.

[77]  Michael J Yaszemski,et al.  Potential therapeutic application of gold nanoparticles in B-chronic lymphocytic leukemia (BCLL): enhancing apoptosis , 2007, Journal of nanobiotechnology.

[78]  P. Sadler,et al.  Interaction of the antitumor Au(I) complex [Au(Ph2P(CH2)2PPh2)2]Cl with human blood plasma, red cells, and lipoproteins: 31P and 1H NMR studies. , 1987, Journal of inorganic biochemistry.

[79]  G. Heppner.  Tumor heterogeneity. , 1984, Cancer research.

[80]  Chitta Ranjan Patra,et al.  Gold Nanoparticles Inhibit the Proliferation of Multiple Myeloma Cells , 2007 .

[81]  E. Giorgetti,et al.  Production of colloidal gold nanoparticles by picosecond laser ablation in liquids , 2007 .

[82]  Peter P. Edwards,et al.  Gold in a Metallic Divided State — From Faraday to Present-Day Nanoscience , 2007 .

[83]  Jin-Ho Choy,et al.  Toxicological effects of inorganic nanoparticles on human lung cancer A549 cells. , 2009, Journal of inorganic biochemistry.

[84]  S. Mahdihassan.  Cinnabar-gold as the best alchemical drug of longevity, called Makaradhwaja in India. , 1985, The American journal of Chinese medicine.

[85]  Lawrence Tamarkin,et al.  Colloidal Gold: A Novel Nanoparticle Vector for Tumor Directed Drug Delivery , 2004, Drug delivery.

[86]  M. Yacamán,et al.  Interaction of silver nanoparticles with HIV-1 , 2005, Journal of nanobiotechnology.

[87]  M. D. Rowe,et al.  Polymer-modified gadolinium metal-organic framework nanoparticles used as multifunctional nanomedicines for the targeted imaging and treatment of cancer. , 2009, Biomacromolecules.

[88]  Sungho Jin,et al.  Magnetic nanoparticles for theragnostics. , 2009, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[89]  R Richards-Kortum,et al.  Fiber confocal reflectance microscope (FCRM) for in-vivo imaging. , 2001, Optics express.

[90]  Bishara S Atiyeh,et al.  Effect of silver on burn wound infection control and healing: review of the literature. , 2007, Burns : journal of the International Society for Burn Injuries.

[91]  M. Ratnam,et al.  Distribution, functionality and gene regulation of folate receptor isoforms: implications in targeted therapy. , 2004, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[92]  P. Sadler,et al.  Photogeneration of titanium(III) from titanium(IV) citrate in aqueous solution. , 2006, Journal of inorganic biochemistry.

[93]  G Toffoli,et al.  Overexpression of folate binding protein in ovarian cancers , 1997, International journal of cancer.

[94]  Mark L Brongersma,et al.  Nanoshells: gifts in a gold wrapper , 2003, Nature materials.

[95]  John C. Bischof,et al.  Enhancement of tumor thermal therapy using gold nanoparticle–assisted tumor necrosis factor-α delivery , 2006, Molecular Cancer Therapeutics.

[96]  P. Sadler,et al.  Cytotoxicity and antitumor activity of some tetrahedral bis(diphosphino)gold(I) chelates. , 1990, Journal of medicinal chemistry.

[97]  S. Ramakumar,et al.  Anaerobic photocleavage of DNA in red light by dicopper(II) complexes of 3,3'-dithiodipropionic acid. , 2009, Inorganic chemistry.

[98]  R. Weissleder,et al.  Targeted delivery of multifunctional magnetic nanoparticles. , 2007, Nanomedicine.

[99]  Sudhakar R. Sainkar,et al.  Fungus-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their immobilization in the mycelial matrix: a novel biological approach to nanoparticle synthesis , 2001 .

[100]  Manoj Kumar Gupta,et al.  Mechanism and its regulation of tumor-induced angiogenesis. , 2003, World journal of gastroenterology.

[101]  Wenbin Lin,et al.  Nanoscale coordination polymers for platinum-based anticancer drug delivery. , 2008, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[102]  D. Leibfritz,et al.  Free radicals and antioxidants in normal physiological functions and human disease. , 2007, The international journal of biochemistry & cell biology.

[103]  M. Timko,et al.  Acute toxicity of magnetic nanoparticles in mice. , 2006, Neuro - endocrinology letters.

[104]  C. Mirkin,et al.  Nanoparticle-Based Bio-Bar Codes for the Ultrasensitive Detection of Proteins , 2003, Science.

[105]  Kang L. Wang,et al.  Carbon nanotube-DNA nanoarchitectures and electronic functionality. , 2006, Small.

[106]  George M. Whitesides,et al.  Formation of monolayers by the coadsorption of thiols on gold: variation in the head group, tail group, and solvent , 1989 .

[107]  Mari Yamamoto,et al.  Thermolysis of gold(I) thiolate complexes producing novel gold nanoparticles passivated by alkyl groups. , 2002, Chemical communications.

[108]  D. Walt,et al.  Preparation of Polymer Coated Gold Nanoparticles by Surface-Confined Living Radical Polymerization at Ambient Temperature , 2002 .

[109]  James B. Mitchell,et al.  Hypoxic mammalian cell radiosensitization by nitric oxide. , 1993, Cancer research.

[110]  C. Larabell,et al.  Quantum dots as cellular probes. , 2005, Annual review of biomedical engineering.

[111]  T. Hambley,et al.  Studies of a cobalt(III) complex of the MMP inhibitor marimastat: a potential hypoxia-activated prodrug. , 2007, Chemistry.

[112]  George C. Schatz,et al.  The Optical Properties of Metal Nanoparticles: The Influence of Size, Shape, and Dielectric Environment , 2003 .

[113]  Luis M. Liz-Marzán,et al.  Nanometals: Formation and color , 2004 .

[114]  Liping Tang,et al.  Surface chemistry influences cancer killing effect of TiO2 nanoparticles. , 2008, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[115]  A. Mantovani,et al.  Molecular mechanisms of blood vessel formation. , 1997, Trends in biochemical sciences.

[116]  W. Risau,et al.  Mechanisms of angiogenesis , 1997, Nature.

[117]  François Guillemin,et al.  Nanoparticles as vehicles for delivery of photodynamic therapy agents. , 2008, Trends in biotechnology.

[118]  Xing-Jie Liang,et al.  Inhibition of Tumor Growth by Endohedral Metallofullerenol Nanoparticles Optimized as Reactive Oxygen Species Scavenger , 2008, Molecular Pharmacology.

[119]  M El Sayed,et al.  SHAPE AND SIZE DEPENDENCE OF RADIATIVE, NON-RADIATIVE AND PHOTOTHERMAL PROPERTIES OF GOLD NANOCRYSTALS , 2000 .

[120]  Indrajit Roy,et al.  Ceramic-based nanoparticles entrapping water-insoluble photosensitizing anticancer drugs: a novel drug-carrier system for photodynamic therapy. , 2003, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[121]  W. Stöber,et al.  Controlled growth of monodisperse silica spheres in the micron size range , 1968 .

[122]  Sudipta Seal,et al.  Protection from radiation-induced pneumonitis using cerium oxide nanoparticles. , 2009, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[123]  K. Ghiggino,et al.  Photochemistry of Anthracene-Appended Cobalt(iii) Cyclam Complexes , 2008 .

[124]  K. Anderson,et al.  Identification and validation of novel therapeutic targets for multiple myeloma. , 2005, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[125]  H. Dvorak,et al.  Tumor cells secrete a vascular permeability factor that promotes accumulation of ascites fluid. , 1983, Science.

[126]  H. Jeng,et al.  Toxicity of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles in Mammalian Cells , 2006, Journal of environmental science and health. Part A, Toxic/hazardous substances & environmental engineering.

[127]  G. Whitesides,et al.  Self-assembled monolayers of thiolates on metals as a form of nanotechnology. , 2005, Chemical reviews.

[128]  El Sayed.  SOME INTERESTING PROPERTIES OF METALS CONFINED IN TIME AND NANOMETER SPACE OF DIFFERENT SHAPES , 2001 .

[129]  H. Haick,et al.  Diagnosing lung cancer in exhaled breath using gold nanoparticles. , 2009, Nature nanotechnology.

[130]  H. Morrison,et al.  Photoaquation of cis-dichlorobis-(1,10-phenanthroline)chromium(III) and the photochemical and thermal reactions of this complex with native calf-thymus DNA. , 1995, Journal of inorganic biochemistry.

[131]  J. Folkman.  Tumor Angiogenesis Factor 1 , 2006 .

[132]  M. Sastry,et al.  Electrostatic assembly of nanoparticles and biomacromolecules. , 2002, Accounts of chemical research.

[133]  A. Lacy,et al.  Near real time confocal microscopy of amelanotic tissue: detection of dysplasia in ex-vivo cervical tissue , 2002, Proceedings of the Second Joint 24th Annual Conference and the Annual Fall Meeting of the Biomedical Engineering Society] [Engineering in Medicine and Biology.

[134]  K. Kobayashi,et al.  Study of Auger effect in DNA when bound to molecules containing platinum. A possible application to hadrontherapy , 2003 .

[135]  Tae-Jong Yoon,et al.  Toxicity and tissue distribution of magnetic nanoparticles in mice. , 2006, Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology.

[136]  A. Ellington,et al.  Photoactivated DNA cleavage via charge transfer promoted N2 release from tris[3-hydroxy-1,2,3-benzotriazine-4(3H)-one]iron(III) , 2000 .

[137]  P. Alivisatos.  The use of nanocrystals in biological detection , 2004, Nature Biotechnology.

[138]  V. Shah,et al.  Intracellular fate of a targeted delivery system , 2008 .

[139]  P. Sadler,et al.  The autoxidation and proton dissociation constants of tertiary diphosphines: relevance to biological activity. , 1987, Journal of inorganic biochemistry.

[140]  S. Gosavi,et al.  Formation of gold nanoparticles in polymethylmethacrylate by UV irradiation , 2007 .

[141]  Xiaohua Huang,et al.  Selective laser photo-thermal therapy of epithelial carcinoma using anti-EGFR antibody conjugated gold nanoparticles. , 2006, Cancer letters.

[142]  P. Sadler,et al.  Dual triggering of DNA binding and fluorescence via photoactivation of a dinuclear ruthenium(II) arene complex. , 2007, Inorganic chemistry.

[143]  Sudhakar R. Sainkar,et al.  BIOREDUCTION OF AUCL4− IONS BY THE FUNGUS, VERTICILLIUM SP. AND SURFACE TRAPPING OF THE GOLD NANOPARTICLES FORMED , 2001 .

[144]  B. Kamen,et al.  A review of folate receptor alpha cycling and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate accumulation with an emphasis on cell models in vitro. , 2004, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[145]  Bing Xu,et al.  FePt@CoS(2) yolk-shell nanocrystals as a potent agent to kill HeLa cells. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[146]  W. Xiong,et al.  Poly(l‐lysine)‐modified silica nanoparticles for the delivery of antisense oligonucleotides , 2004, Biotechnology and applied biochemistry.

[147]  Pavel Hobza,et al.  Noncovalent Interactions: A Challenge for Experiment and Theory , 2000 .

[148]  James H Thrall,et al.  Nanotechnology and medicine. , 2004, Radiology.

[149]  H J Klasen,et al.  Historical review of the use of silver in the treatment of burns. I. Early uses. , 2000, Burns : journal of the International Society for Burn Injuries.

[150]  Itamar Willner,et al.  Integrated Nanoparticle—Biomolecule Hybrid Systems: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications , 2005 .

[151]  T. Kunitake,et al.  Practical preparation of anionic mercapto ligand-stabilized gold nanoparticles and their immobilization , 1999 .

[152]  U. Pal,et al.  Synthesis of gold nanoparticles with different atomistic structural characteristics , 2007 .

[153]  W. C. Keettel,et al.  Radioisotopes in treatment of stage Ia ovarian cancer. , 1975, National Cancer Institute monograph.

[154]  H. Wheeler,et al.  Experiences with the use of radioactive colloidal gold in the treatment of cancer. , 1955, Annals of surgery.

[155]  J. Overgaard.  The current and potential role of hyperthermia in radiotherapy. , 1989, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[156]  J. Bischof,et al.  In Situ Thermal Denaturation of Proteins in Dunning AT-1 Prostate Cancer Cells: Implication for Hyperthermic Cell Injury , 2004, Annals of Biomedical Engineering.

[157]  P. Morais,et al.  Long-term retention of dextran-coated magnetite nanoparticles in the liver and spleen , 2004 .

[158]  Chad A. Mirkin,et al.  Drivers of biodiagnostic development , 2009, Nature.

[159]  C. Shaw III.  Gold-based therapeutic agents. , 1999, Chemical reviews.

[160]  John C Bischof,et al.  Biodistribution of TNF-alpha-coated gold nanoparticles in an in vivo model system. , 2009, Nanomedicine.

[161]  T. Kubota,et al.  TSU-68 (SU6668) inhibits local tumor growth and liver metastasis of human colon cancer xenografts via anti-angiogenesis. , 2005, Oncology reports.

[162]  Nanoconjugation modulates the trafficking and mechanism of antibody-induced receptor endocytosis. , 2011, Nanomedicine.

[163]  E. Van Cutsem,et al.  Reporting on the results of cancer treatment in patients with metastatic liver disease: proposal of symmetric size-dependent CT-criteria for response. , 1996, Annals of Oncology.

[164]  Markus P. Hehlen,et al.  Hexagonal Sodium Yttrium Fluoride Based Green and Blue Emitting Upconversion Phosphors. , 2004 .

[165]  Z. D. Cater-Cyker,et al.  Nanoparticle synthesis via the photochemical polythiol process. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[166]  Aibing Yu,et al.  Inorganic nanoparticles as carriers for efficient cellular delivery , 2006 .

[167]  I. Rubinstein,et al.  Role of nanotechnology in targeted drug delivery and imaging: a concise review. , 2005, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[168]  Indrajit Roy,et al.  In vivo biodistribution and clearance studies using multimodal organically modified silica nanoparticles. , 2010, ACS nano.

[169]  F. Sp,et al.  Comparison of two colorimetric assays as cytotoxicity endpoints for an in vitro screen for antitumour agents. , 1996 .

[170]  M. Hande,et al.  Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of silver nanoparticles in human cells. , 2009, ACS nano.

[171]  S. Donaldson.  Nutritional consequences of radiotherapy. , 1977, Cancer research.

[172]  Stephan Link,et al.  Optical properties and ultrafast dynamics of metallic nanocrystals. , 2003, Annual review of physical chemistry.

[173]  J. Warner,et al.  Biomolecule-assisted synthesis of water-soluble silver nanoparticles and their biomedical applications. , 2008, Inorganic chemistry.

[174]  M. Hall,et al.  Basis for Design and Development of Platinum(IV) Anticancer Complexes , 2007 .

[175]  Keettel Wc,et al.  Radioisotopes in treatment of stage Ia ovarian cancer. , 1975 .

[176]  R. P. Andres,et al.  Synthesis and grafting of thioctic acid-PEG-folate conjugates onto Au nanoparticles for selective targeting of folate receptor-positive tumor cells. , 2006, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[177]  R. Jain,et al.  Lymphatics Make the Break , 2003, Science.

[178]  A. Maitra,et al.  pDNA loaded calcium phosphate nanoparticles: highly efficient non-viral vector for gene delivery. , 2005, International journal of pharmaceutics.

[179]  A. Lu,et al.  Magnetic nanoparticles: synthesis, protection, functionalization, and application. , 2007, Angewandte Chemie.

[180]  M. El-Sayed,et al.  Spectral Properties and Relaxation Dynamics of Surface Plasmon Electronic Oscillations in Gold and Silver Nanodots and Nanorods , 1999 .

[181]  R. Jain,et al.  Development. Lymphatics make the break. , 2003, Science.

[182]  M Geso,et al.  Gold nanoparticles: a new X-ray contrast agent. , 2007, The British journal of radiology.

[183]  S. Silver,et al.  Silver as biocides in burn and wound dressings and bacterial resistance to silver compounds , 2006, Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[184]  Sung Ju Cho,et al.  Quantum dot-induced cell death involves Fas upregulation and lipid peroxidation in human neuroblastoma cells , 2007, Journal of nanobiotechnology.

[185]  Ling Wang,et al.  Antiangiogenic Properties of Gold Nanoparticles , 2005, Clinical Cancer Research.

[186]  Xiaohua Huang,et al.  Surface plasmon resonance scattering and absorption of anti-EGFR antibody conjugated gold nanoparticles in cancer diagnostics: applications in oral cancer. , 2005, Nano letters.

[187]  Mathias Brust,et al.  Synthesis of thiol-derivatised gold nanoparticles in a two-phase liquid-liquid system , 1994 .

[188]  Samuel Zalipsky,et al.  Tumor cell targeting of liposome-entrapped drugs with phospholipid-anchored folic acid-PEG conjugates. , 2004, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[189]  S. Singletary,et al.  Radiofrequency ablation of solid tumors. , 2001, Cancer journal.

[190]  R. Tarnuzzer,et al.  Vacancy engineered ceria nanostructures for protection from radiation-induced cellular damage. , 2005, Nano letters.

[191]  J. Fujimoto,et al.  In vivo endoscopic optical biopsy with optical coherence tomography. , 1997, Science.

[192]  G. Whitesides.  The 'right' size in nanobiotechnology , 2003, Nature Biotechnology.

[193]  R K Jain,et al.  Transport of molecules, particles, and cells in solid tumors. , 1999, Annual review of biomedical engineering.

[194]  S. Nie,et al.  In vivo cancer targeting and imaging with semiconductor quantum dots , 2004, Nature Biotechnology.

[195]  N. Ferrara,et al.  Pituitary follicular cells secrete a novel heparin-binding growth factor specific for vascular endothelial cells. , 1989, Biochemical and biophysical research communications.

[196]  J. Frank,et al.  Cellular magnetic resonance imaging: current status and future prospects , 2006, Expert review of medical devices.

[197]  Wei Chen,et al.  Using nanoparticles to enable simultaneous radiation and photodynamic therapies for cancer treatment. , 2006, Journal of nanoscience and nanotechnology.

[198]  S. Schreiber,et al.  Small-molecule inhibition of proteasome and aggresome function induces synergistic antitumor activity in multiple myeloma. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[199]  T. Maruo,et al.  Immunohistochemical demonstration of elevated expression of epidermal growth factor receptor in the neoplastic changes of cervical squamous epithelium , 2010, Cancer.

[200]  Chenjie Xu,et al.  Dumbbell-like Au-Fe3O4 nanoparticles for target-specific platin delivery. , 2009, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[201]  G. Hortobagyi,et al.  Chemotherapy: what progress in the last 5 years? , 2005, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[202]  Warren C W Chan,et al.  Nanoparticle-mediated cellular response is size-dependent. , 2008, Nature nanotechnology.

[203]  Prashant K. Jain,et al.  Determination of the Minimum Temperature Required for Selective Photothermal Destruction of Cancer Cells with the Use of Immunotargeted Gold Nanoparticles , 2006, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[204]  P. Sadler,et al.  Photoactivated chemotherapy (PACT): the potential of excited-state d-block metals in medicine. , 2009, Dalton transactions.

[205]  O. Gorbenko,et al.  Ag-doped manganite nanoparticles: new materials for temperature-controlled medical hyperthermia. , 2009, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.

[206]  J. van der Zee,et al.  First results of triple‐modality treatment combining radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and hyperthermia for the treatment of patients with Stage IIB, III, and IVA cervical carcinoma , 2005, Cancer.

[207]  Hendrik Engelbrecht,et al.  Radioactive gold nanoparticles in cancer therapy: therapeutic efficacy studies of GA-198AuNP nanoconstruct in prostate tumor-bearing mice. , 2010, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[208]  C. Christophi,et al.  The treatment of malignancy by hyperthermia. , 1998, Surgical oncology.

[209]  A. Shiau,et al.  Increased apoptotic potential and dose‐enhancing effect of gold nanoparticles in combination with single‐dose clinical electron beams on tumor‐bearing mice , 2008, Cancer science.

[210]  H. Weiss,et al.  Molecular characterization of colorectal neoplasia in translational research. , 2001, Archives of pathology & laboratory medicine.

[211]  G. Heppner,et al.  Mutagenic activity of tumor-associated macrophages in Salmonella typhimurium strains TA98 and TA 100. , 1984, Cancer research.

[212]  S. Stylli,et al.  Dipyridophenazine Complexes of Cobalt(III): DNA Photocleavage and Photobiology , 2005 .

[213]  Parag Aggarwal,et al.  Nanoparticle interaction with plasma proteins as it relates to particle biodistribution, biocompatibility and therapeutic efficacy. , 2009, Advanced drug delivery reviews.