Above the glass ceiling? A comparison of matched samples of female and male executives.

In this study the authors compare career and work experiences of executive women and men. Female (n = 51) and male (n = 56) financial services executives in comparable jobs were studied through archival information on organizational outcomes and career histories, and survey measures of work experiences. Similarities were found in several organizational outcomes, such as compensation, and many work attitudes. Important differences were found, however, with women having less authority, receiving fewer stock options, and having less international mobility than men. Women at the highest executive levels reported more obstacles than lower level women. The gender differences coupled with women's lower satisfaction with future career opportunities raise questions about whether women are truly above the glass ceiling or have come up against a 2nd, higher ceiling.

[1]  M. Heilman,et al.  Has anything changed? Current characterizations of men, women, and managers. , 1989 .

[2]  Stephen M. Colarelli.  Methods of communication and mediating processes in realistic job previews. , 1984 .

[3]  I. Frieze,et al.  The Effects of Job Type and Industry on the Income of Male and Female MBAs , 1987 .

[4]  George T. Milkovich,et al.  Organizational Differences in Managerial Compensation and Financial Performance , 1990 .

[5]  Stephen M. Colarelh.  Methods Of Communication and Mediating Processes in Realistic Job Previews , 1984 .

[6]  Barbara A. Gutek,et al.  Women and work : an annual review , 1985 .

[7]  Karen Korabik,et al.  Organizational Experiences and Propensity to Leave: A Multivariate Investigation of Men and Women Managers. , 1995 .

[8]  Ellen Van Velsor,et al.  Gender Differences in the Development of Managers: How Women Managers Learn from Experience , 1990 .

[9]  Jacob Cohen.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences , 1969, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Research Design.

[10]  Linda K. Stroh,et al.  Pulling up roots in the 1990s: Who's willing to relocate? , 1993 .

[11]  Gary N. Powell,et al.  Cross-Currents in the River of Time: Conceptualizing the Complexities of Women's Careers , 1992 .

[12]  R. Kanter.  Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women , 1977, American Journal of Sociology.

[13]  Robert Drazin,et al.  Sex Inequality at Higher Levels in the Hierarchy: An Intraorganizational Perspective , 1988 .

[14]  Francine D. Blau,et al.  The economics of women, men, and work , 1987 .

[15]  J. Yoder,et al.  RETHINKING TOKENISM: , 1991 .

[16]  John P. Meyer,et al.  Commitment to organizations and occupations: Extension and test of a three-component conceptualization. , 1993 .

[17]  J. Miller,et al.  Unraveling the mysteries of gender differences in intentions to leave the organization , 1992 .

[18]  James N. Baron,et al.  Men and Women at Work: Sex Segregation and Statistical Discrimination , 1986, American Journal of Sociology.

[19]  Patricia A. Roos,et al.  Job Queues, Gender Queues , 1990 .

[20]  Marian N. Ruderman,et al.  Gender Differences in Managers' Developmental Job Experiences , 1994 .

[21]  Jeanne M. Brett,et al.  All the right stuff : a comparison of female and male managers career progression , 1992 .

[22]  J. Lefkowitz.  Sex-Related Differences in Job Attitudes and Dispositional Variables: Now You See Them, … , 1994 .

[23]  B. Gutek,et al.  Sex Effects on Evaluation , 1980 .

[24]  C. Montmarquette,et al.  Managerial Momentum: A Simultaneous Model of the Career Progress of Male and Female Managers , 1991 .

[25]  V. O'leary.  Some attitudinal barriers to occupational aspirations in women. , 1974 .

[26]  P. Wallace,et al.  Women in the Workplace , 1982 .

[27]  A. Morrison.  The New Leaders: Guidelines on Leadership Diversity in America. Jossey-Bass Management Series. , 1992 .

[28]  Ellen A. Fagenson.  Women in management : trends, issues, and challenges in managerial diversity , 1994 .

[29]  Henry L. Tosi,et al.  The Effects of the Type and Amount of Information in Sex Discrimination Research: A Meta-Analysis , 1985 .

[30]  Ronald A. Ash,et al.  Gender Earnings Differentials in Total Pay, Base Pay, and Contingent Pay , 1994 .

[31]  B. Gutek,et al.  Women's career development. , 1987 .

[32]  J. S. Phillips,et al.  The Changing Nature of Research on Women at Work , 1988 .

[33]  Celia V. Harquail,et al.  Career paths and career success in the early career stages of male and female MBAs. , 1991 .

[34]  J. Terborg,et al.  Women in management: A research review. , 1977 .

[35]  Jeffrey H. Greenhaus,et al.  Job Performance Attributions and Career Advancement Prospects: An Examination of Gender and Race Effects , 1993 .

[36]  James N. Baron,et al.  The Structure of Opportunity: How Promotion Ladders Vary within and among Organizations. , 1986 .

[37]  T. Cox.  Cultural diversity in organizations : theory, research, and practice , 1993 .

[38]  Daniel M. Cable,et al.  AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE PREDICTORS OF EXECUTIVE CAREER SUCCESS , 1995 .

[39]  T. M. Lodahl,et al.  THE DEFINITION AND MEASUREMENT OF JOB INVOLVEMENT. , 1965, The Journal of applied psychology.

[40]  T. Begley,et al.  Panel analysis of the moderating effects of commitment on job satisfaction, intent to quit, and health following organizational change. , 1993, The Journal of applied psychology.

[41]  P. Lachenbruch.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.) , 1989 .

[42]  Madeline E. Heilman,et al.  Sex bias in work settings: The Lack of Fit model. , 1983 .

[43]  Steven L. Neuberg,et al.  A Continuum of Impression Formation, from Category-Based to Individuating Processes: Influences of Information and Motivation on Attention and Interpretation , 1990 .

[44]  V. E. Schein.  Relationships between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics among female managers. , 1975, The Journal of applied psychology.

[45]  Y. Haberfeld.  Employment Discrimination: An Organizational Model , 1992 .

[46]  J. Greenhaus,et al.  A model of work, family, and interrole conflict: A construct validation study , 1983 .

[47]  J. I. Kim,et al.  Accountability and judgment processes in a personality prediction task. , 1987, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[48]  N. Adler.  Expecting international success: Female managers overseas , 1985 .

[49]  B. Campbell.  Men and Women of the Corporation , 1978 .

[50]  Blair T. Johnson,et al.  Gender and Leadership Style: A Meta-Analysis , 1990 .

[51]  Taylor Cox,et al.  Cultural diversity in organizations , 1993 .

[52]  B. Reskin,et al.  Jobs, Authority, and Earnings Among Managers , 1992 .

[53]  Robert G. Wood,et al.  Pay Differences among the Highly Paid: The Male-Female Earnings Gap in Lawyers' Salaries , 1993, Journal of Labor Economics.

[54]  N. Carlin,et al.  Sex and gender. , 1996, Science.

[55]  M. Heilman,et al.  The vagaries of sex bias: Conditions regulating the undervaluation, equivaluation, and overvaluation of female job applicants , 1988 .

[56]  Urs E. Gattiker,et al.  A comparison of the career paths used by successful women and men. , 1987 .

[57]  V. E. Schein.  The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. , 1973, The Journal of applied psychology.

[58]  Thomas L. Ruble,et al.  Sex Stereotypes , 1984 .

[59]  R. Hackett,et al.  Further assessments of Meyer and Allen's (1991) three-component model of organizational commitment. , 1994 .

[60]  Ann M. Morrison,et al.  Women and minorities in management. , 1990 .

[61]  M. Heilman.  Sex stereotypes and their effects in the workplace: What we know and what we don't know. , 1995 .

[62]  A. Hochschild,et al.  The Second Shift: Working Parents And The Revolution , 1990 .

[63]  M. Arthur,et al.  Predictors of willingness to relocate for managerial and professional employees , 1992 .

[64]  J. Jacobs.  Gender Inequality at Work. , 1995 .

[65]  J. Harvey,et al.  New Directions in Attribution Research , 2018 .

[66]  John P. Meyer,et al.  A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment , 1991 .

[67]  B. Gutek,et al.  Rational versus gender role explanations for work-family conflict. , 1991 .

[68]  Marian N. Ruderman,et al.  Assessing the developmental components of managerial jobs. , 1994 .