An Empirical Test of a General Theory of Crime: A Four-Nation Comparative Study of Self-Control and the Prediction of Deviance

The current investigation examined the psychometric properties of Grasmick et al.'s self-control measure and its relationship with deviance on large, representative adolescent samples ( N = 8,417) from Hungary, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United States. Important findings indicate that (1) the self-control measure is multidimensional; (2) the self-control measure is tenable for males, females, five different age groups (15-, 16-, 17-, 18-, and 19-year-olds), and adolescents from four different countries; (3) deviance as assessed by the Normative Deviance Scale (NDS) can be reliably measured in different countries; (4) self-control accounts for 10 to 16 percent of the total variance explained in different types of deviance and for 20 percent in total deviance; and (5) developmental processes involving self-control and deviance are largely invariant by national context. The investigation provides further support for the multidimensional self-control measure and its relationship with deviance independent of national context.

[1]  A. Vazsonyi,et al.  Family Processes and Deviance , 2000 .

[2]  Velmer S. Burton,et al.  Gender, Self-Control, and Crime , 1998 .

[3]  P. Bentler.  On the fit of models to covariances and methodology to the Bulletin. , 1992, Psychological bulletin.

[4]  Harold G. Grasmick,et al.  Low self-control and imprudent behavior , 1993 .

[5]  Leslie W. Kennedy,et al.  Risky lifestyles, routine activities, and the General Theory of Crime , 1997 .

[6]  C Loehlin John,et al.  Latent variable models: an introduction to factor, path, and structural analysis , 1986 .

[7]  Betty Pfefferbaum,et al.  RISK-TAKING AND SELF-CONTROL: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF DELINQUENCY , 1993 .

[8]  Douglas Longshore,et al.  SELF-CONTROL AND CRIMINAL OPPORTUNITY: A PROSPECTIVE TEST OF THE GENERAL THEORY OF CRIME , 1998 .

[9]  George R. Franke,et al.  Structural Equation Modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows , 1995 .

[10]  H. Snyder,et al.  Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Report. , 2006 .

[11]  B. Byrne,et al.  Structural Equation Modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows. , 1996 .

[12]  D. Nagin,et al.  Enduring individual differences and rational choice theories of crime , 1993 .

[13]  G. J. Terlouw,et al.  Delinquent behavior among young people in the western world , 1994 .

[14]  Michael R. Gottfredson,et al.  The Generality of Deviance , 1995 .

[15]  Alex R. Piquero,et al.  Specifying the direct and indirect effects of low self-control and situational factors in offenders' decision making: Toward a more complete model of rational offending , 1996 .

[16]  P. Bentler,et al.  Covariance structure analysis: statistical practice, theory, and directions. , 1996, Annual review of psychology.

[17]  Alex R. Piquero,et al.  THE RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF GRASMICK et al.'s SELF‐CONTROL SCALE: A COMMENT ON LONGSHORE et al.* , 1998 .

[18]  Michael R. Gottfredson,et al.  Control theory and the life-course perspective. , 1995 .

[19]  Velmer S. Burton,et al.  Age, self-control, and adults' offending behaviors: A research note assessing A general theory of crime , 1999 .

[20]  Robert Brame,et al.  THE STRUCTURAL SIMILARITY OF PROCESSES GENERATING CRIMINAL AND ANALOGOUS BEHAVIORS , 1998 .

[21]  P. Bentler,et al.  Model Modification in Covariance Structure Modeling: A Comparison among Likelihood Ratio, Lagrange Multiplier, and Wald Tests. , 1990, Multivariate behavioral research.

[22]  A. Vazsonyi.  Family socialization and delinquency in the United States and Switzerland , 1996 .

[23]  Richard E. Tremblay,et al.  Does low self-control during childhood explain the association between delinquency and accidents in early adolescence? , 1995 .

[24]  Lea Pulkkinen,et al.  Low self‐control as a precursor to crime and accidents in a Finnish longitudinal study , 1995 .

[25]  Phil A. Silva,et al.  Temperamental and Familial Predictors of Violent and Nonviolent Criminal Convictions: Age 3 to Age 18. , 1996 .

[26]  David Brownfield,et al.  Self‐control and juvenile delinquency: Theoretical issues and an empirical assessment of selected elements of a general theory of crime , 1993 .

[27]  R. Gartner.  The Victims of Homicide: A Temporal and Cross-National Comparison , 1990 .

[28]  Robert A. Silverman,et al.  LOW SELF-CONTROL AND OPPORTUNITY: TESTING THE GENERAL THEORY OF CRIME AS AN EXPLANATION FOR GENDER DIFFERENCES IN DELINQUENCY* , 1999 .

[29]  M. Killias,et al.  Immigration and Crime among Youth in Switzerland , 2001 .

[30]  S. Turner,et al.  Self-Control in a Criminal Sample , 1996 .

[31]  M. Polakowski,et al.  Linking self- and social control with deviance: Illuminating the structure underlying a general theory of crime and its relation to deviant activity , 1994 .

[32]  Michael R. Gottfredson,et al.  Commentary: Testing the General Theory of Crime , 1993 .

[33]  E. Cohn,et al.  CHANGES IN THE MOST-CITED SCHOLARS IN MAJOR AMERICAN CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE JOURNALS BETWEEN 1986-1990 AND 1991-1995 , 1998 .

[34]  I. Marshall,et al.  The Interethnic Generalizability of Social Control Theory: An Empirical Test , 1997 .

[35]  M. Browne,et al.  Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit , 1992 .

[36]  Darren George,et al.  SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A Simple Guide and Reference , 1998 .

[37]  Phil A. Silva,et al.  Self-reported delinquency: Results from an instrument for New Zealand* , 1988 .

[38]  D. Archer,et al.  Violence and Crime in Cross-National Perspective , 1986 .

[39]  John K. Cochran,et al.  Is the Religiosity-Delinquency Relationship Spurious? A Test of Arousal and Social Control Theories , 1994 .

[40]  S. Turner,et al.  Self-Control and Criminal Opportunity , 1998 .

[41]  T. Gabor.  Everybody Does It!: Crime by the Public , 1994 .

[42]  Paul S. Maxim,et al.  Drinking and Driving, Self-Control, and Gender: Testing a General Theory of Crime , 1993 .

[43]  D. C. Rowe.  No more than skin deep. , 1994 .

[44]  Avshalom Caspi,et al.  ARE SOME PEOPLE CRIME‐PRONE? REPLICATIONS OF THE PERSONALITY‐CRIME RELATIONSHIP ACROSS COUNTRIES, GENDERS, RACES, AND METHODS* , 1994 .

[45]  J. Junger-Tas.  Self-Report Delinquency Research in Holland with a Perspective on International Comparison , 1989 .

[46]  Frances P. Bernat,et al.  Social Learning, Self-Control, and Substance Abuse by Eighth Grade Students: A Tale of Two Cities , 1998 .

[47]  Peter M. Bentler,et al.  EQS : structural equations program manual , 1989 .

[48]  B. Tabachnick,et al.  Using Multivariate Statistics , 1983 .

[49]  L. Pulkkinen.  Self-control and continuity from childhood to late adolescence , 1982 .

[50]  John J. Gibbs,et al.  Self-control and its manifestations among university students: An empirical test of Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory , 1995 .

[51]  John J. Gibbs,et al.  Parental Management and Self-Control: An Empirical Test of Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory , 1998 .

[52]  T. Moffitt.  Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy. , 1993, Psychological review.

[53]  S. Menard,et al.  Delinquency and drug use: Temporal and developmental patterns , 1989 .

[54]  Harold G. Grasmick,et al.  Testing the Core Empirical Implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime , 1993 .

[55]  A. Vazsonyi,et al.  Ethnic and Racial Similarity in Developmental Process: A Study of Academic Achievement , 1995 .

[56]  A. B. Hollingshead,et al.  Four factor index of social status , 1975 .

[57]  A. Vazsonyi,et al.  No More Than Skin Deep: Ethnic and Racial Similarity in Developmental Process , 1994 .

[58]  David Brownfield,et al.  Adolescent drug use and a general theory of crime: An analysis of a theoretical integration , 1995 .

[59]  T. Moffitt.  Accommodating Self-Report Methods to a Low-Delinquency Culture: A Longitudinal Study from New Zealand , 1989 .

[60]  Melissa Sickmund.  Juvenile offenders and victims , 1997 .

[61]  D. Steffensmeier.  ON THE CAUSES OF “WHITE‐COLLAR” CRIME: AN ASSESSMENT OF HIRSCHI AND GOTTFREDSON'S CLAIMS , 1989 .

[62]  Harold G. Grasmick,et al.  Evaluating the Dimensionality and Invariance of ”Low Self-Control” , 1999 .

[63]  Edward G. Carmines,et al.  Reliability and Validity Assessment , 1979 .

[64]  Bryan Vila,et al.  Self-Control and Social Control: An Exposition of the Gottfredson-Hirschi/Sampson Laub Debate , 1996 .