Impact of the surface roughness of stones used in historical buildings on biodeterioration

Abstract Rock surfaces are modified in natural outcrops depending on the interaction between the atmosphere and the rock. Biological factors are natural conditions that have persistent adverse effects on historical buildings. Because the effects of these factors are continuous and slow, the measures taken are mostly neglected. Primary biological effects come from plants that grow on buildings, which can cause them harm. In the field of study, there are significant historical buildings located in central Anatolia (Nigde region) that have hosted many civilizations over time. In this study, 6 historical buildings constructed with different stones were chosen to determine which plants grow on these historical buildings and whether they cause harm to these buildings. First, the mineralogical and engineering properties of the stones used in these buildings were determined; then, the studies regarding surface roughness were conducted. It was determined that the types of stones, their locations on the building and the surface roughness of the stone had a great impact on plant growth. It was observed that although the deserted churches were constructed using high strength stones, the herbaceous and woody plants growing in the gaps between the stones located on horizontal or slightly sloped parts of the building with a high level of surface roughness cause substantial harm to the roof coating.

[1]  A. Özbek,et al.  Engineering properties of Hınıs ignimbrites and their usability as a building stone (Erzurum, Turkey) , 2006 .

[2]  Marco Realini,et al.  Colour changes of Notos calcareous sandstone as related to its colonisation by microorganisms , 1998 .

[3]  C. Arroyave,et al.  Biodeterioration of peridotite and other constructional materials in a building of the Colombian cultural heritage , 2004 .

[4]  O. Guillitte,et al.  Bioreceptivity : a new concept for building ecology studies , 1995 .

[5]  M. Gough.  The Monastery of Eski Gümüş—a Preliminary Report , 1964, Anatolian Studies.

[6]  A. B. Yavuz.  Deterioration of the volcanic kerb and pavement stones in a humid environment in the city centre of Izmir, Turkey , 2006 .

[7]  Michela Monte,et al.  Lichens and higher plants on stone: a review , 2003 .

[8]  Piero Tiano,et al.  Biodiversity of photosynthetic micro-organisms dwelling on stone monuments , 2000 .

[9]  Gilles Escadeillas,et al.  Accelerated testing of biological stain growth on external concrete walls. Part 1: Development of the growth tests , 2007 .

[10]  S. Deruelle.  Rôle du support dans la croissance des microorganismes , 1991 .

[11]  A. Danin.  Pitting of calcareous rocks by organisms under terrestrial conditions , 1992 .

[12]  Tamer Topal,et al.  Deterioration mechanisms of tuffs in Midas monument , 2003 .

[13]  I. Ocak,et al.  The accelerating effects of the microorganisms on biodeterioration of stone monuments under air pollution and continental-cold climatic conditions in Erzurum, Turkey. , 2006, The Science of the total environment.

[14]  D. Pavlova,et al.  The wall flora of the Nebet Tepe Architectural Reserve in the city of Plovdiv (Bulgaria) , 2005 .

[15]  O. Anisimov,et al.  Permafrost and Changing Climate: The Russian Perspective , 2006, Ambio.

[16]  Michiel Dusar,et al.  Historical building stones in the province of Limburg (NE Belgium): role of petrography in provenance and durability assessment , 2004 .

[17]  Christine C. Gaylarde,et al.  A comparative study of the major microbial biomass of biofilms on exteriors of buildings in Europe and Latin America , 2005 .

[18]  M. P. Nugari,et al.  Plant Biology for cultural heritage. , 2007 .

[19]  J. Braams,et al.  Biodeterioration of stone: a review , 2000 .

[20]  T. Kovács,et al.  Durability of crystalline monumental stones in terms of their petrophysical characteristics , 2009 .

[21]  A. Vasileva,et al.  Vascular Plants from the Old Walls in Kystendil (Southwestern Bulgaria) , 2009 .

[22]  F. De Leo,et al.  Biological weathering and mineral deposits of the Belevi marble quarry (Ephesus, Turkey) , 2000 .

[23]  M. Garcia‐Valles,et al.  Weathering processes on the rock surface in natural outcrops: the case of an ancient marble quarry (Belevi, Turkey) , 2002 .

[24]  Chan Hee Lee,et al.  Weathering damage evaluation of rock properties in the Bunhwangsa temple stone pagoda, Gyeongju, Republic of Korea , 2007 .

[25]  R. Dreesen,et al.  Laboratory chamber studies and petrographical analysis as bioreceptivity assessment tools of building materials , 1995 .

[26]  M. Gough.  The Monastery of Eski Gümüş—Second Preliminary Report , 1965, Anatolian Studies.

[27]  P. H. Davis.  Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands. , 1965 .

[28]  Lorraine Schnabel.  Lectures on Materials Science for Architectural Conservation , 2014 .

[29]  Wolfgang E. Krumbein,et al.  Physico-chemical aspects of biodeterioration processes on rocks with special regard to organic pollutants , 1991 .

[30]  Domenico Calcaterra,et al.  The ornamental stones of Caserta province: the Campanian Ignimbrite in the medieval architecture of Casertavecchia , 2004 .

[31]  A. Z. Miller,et al.  Bioreceptivity of building stones: a review. , 2012, The Science of the total environment.

[32]  T. Nakagawa,et al.  Deterioration of stone materials in the Angkor monuments, Cambodia , 2000 .

[33]  Simona Ceschin,et al.  Mapping the risk of damage from tree roots for the conservation of archaeological sites: the case of the Domus Aurea, Rome , 2006 .

[34]  Claudia Sorlini,et al.  Influence of atmospheric pollutants on the biodeterioration of stone , 2000 .

[35]  J. Rishbeth.  The Flora of Cambridge Walls , 1948 .

[36]  E. Garcia-Diaz,et al.  Influence of the intrinsic characteristics of mortars on biofouling by Klebsormidium flaccidum , 2012 .

[37]  H. Alakomi,et al.  Development of a biocidal treatment regime to inhibit biological growths on cultural heritage: BIODAM , 2008 .

[38]  T. Topal,et al.  Engineering geological properties and durability assessment of the Cappadocian tuff , 1997 .

[39]  Arnold Darlington,et al.  Ecology of walls , 1981 .

[40]  Stewart Brand,et al.  How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They're Built , 1997 .

[41]  Cesáreo Sáiz-Jiménez,et al.  Factors affecting the weathering and colonization of monuments by phototrophic microorganisms , 1995 .

[42]  W. R. Dearman,et al.  Some engineering aspects of rock weathering with field examples from Dartmoor and elsewhere , 1971, Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology.

[43]  J. Lorenzo,et al.  ALGAE AND BACTERIA ON HISTORIC MONUMENTS AT ALCALA DE HENARES, SPAIN , 1997 .

[44]  H. Videla,et al.  Biodeterioration of Mayan archaeological sites in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico , 2000 .

[45]  R. Goodman.  Introduction to Rock Mechanics , 1980 .

[46]  S. Siegesmund,et al.  Natural building stones of Mexico–Tenochtitlán: their use, weathering and rock properties at the Templo Mayor, Palace Heras Soto and the Metropolitan Cathedral , 2011 .

[47]  Allen W. Hatheway,et al.  The Complete ISRM Suggested Methods for Rock Characterization, Testing and Monitoring; 1974–2006 , 2009 .

[48]  E. Winkler,et al.  THE JUDICIOUS SELECTION AND PRESERVATION OF TUFF AND TRAVERTINE BUILDING STONE IN ANCIENT ROME , 2005 .