The Person–Situation Debate Revisited: Effect of Situation Strength and Trait Activation on the Validity of the Big Five Personality Traits in Predicting Job Performance

Derived from two theoretical concepts--situation strength and trait activation--we develop and test an interactionistmodel governing the degree to which five-factormodel personality traits are related to job performance. One concept--situation strength--was hypothesized to predict the validities of all of the "Big Five" traits, while the effects of the other--trait activation--were hypothesized to be specific to each trait. Based on this interactionist model, personality--performance correlations were located in the literature, and occupationally homogeneous jobs were coded according to their theoretically relevant contextual properties. Results revealed that all five traits were more predictive of performance for jobs in which the process by which the work was done represented weak situations (e.g., work was unstructured, employee had discretion to make decisions). Many of the traits also predicted performance in job contexts that activated specific traits (e.g., extraversion better predicted performance in jobs requiring social skills, agreeableness was less positively related to performance in competitive contexts, openness was more strongly related to performance in jobs with strong innovation/ creativity requirements). Overall, the study's findings supported our interactionist model in which the situation exerts both general and specific effects on the degree to which personality predicts job performance

[1]  Sophia V. Marinova,et al.  Understanding the Independent Influence of Duty and Achievement Striving When Predicting the Relationship Between Conscientiousness and Organizational Cultural Profiles and Helping Behaviors , 2013, Journal of personality assessment.

[2]  Guido Alessandri,et al.  The higher-order factors of the Big Five as predictors of job performance , 2012 .

[3]  Valter Moreno,et al.  Effects of leader intelligence, personality and emotional intelligence on transformational leadership and managerial performance , 2012 .

[4]  Wissam Magadley,et al.  An Exploration of the Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Job Performance in Police Organizations , 2012 .

[5]  Amy E. Crook,et al.  Measuring Relationships between Personality, Knowledge, and Performance Using Single‐Response Situational Judgment Tests , 2011 .

[6]  Richard G. McFarland,et al.  Individual Differences and Sales Performance: A Distal-Proximal Mediation Model of Self-Efficacy, Conscientiousness, and Extraversion , 2011 .

[7]  L. Downey,et al.  Recruitment Consultant Revenue: Relationships with IQ, Personality, and Emotional Intelligence , 2011 .

[8]  Richard G. Gardner,et al.  The Five-Factor Model of Personality Traits and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis , 2011, The Journal of applied psychology.

[9]  D. Sachau,et al.  Cognitive Ability, Emotional Intelligence, and the Big Five Personality Dimensions as Predictors of Criminal Investigator Performance , 2011 .

[10]  Wade C. Rowatt,et al.  A new trait on the market: Honesty–Humility as a unique predictor of job performance ratings , 2011 .

[11]  Dustin Wood,et al.  What do conscientious people do? Development and validation of the Behavioral Indicators of Conscientiousness (BIC). , 2010, Journal of research in personality.

[12]  Gary Johns,et al.  The joint effects of personality and job scope on in-role performance, citizenship behaviors, and creativity , 2010 .

[13]  Pere J. Ferrando,et al.  Two SPSS programs for interpreting multiple regression results , 2010, Behavior research methods.

[14]  R. Dalal,et al.  A Review and Synthesis of Situational Strength in the Organizational Sciences , 2010 .

[15]  Scott Tonidandel,et al.  Determining the statistical significance of relative weights. , 2009, Psychological methods.

[16]  Reeshad S. Dalal,et al.  A meta‐analytic investigation into the moderating effects of situational strength on the conscientiousness–performance relationship , 2009 .

[17]  Aparna Joshi,et al.  The Role Of Context In Work Team Diversity Research: A Meta-Analytic Review , 2009 .

[18]  P. Zimbardo,et al.  Persistent Dispositionalism in Interactionist Clothing: Fundamental Attribution Error in Explaining Prison Abuse , 2009, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[19]  W. Mischel.  From Personality and Assessment (1968) to Personality Science, 2009 , 2009 .

[20]  R. Hogan.  Much ado about nothing: The person–situation debate , 2009 .

[21]  Richard E. Lucas,et al.  If the person-situation debate is really over, why does it still generate so much negative affect? , 2009 .

[22]  D. Buss.  An evolutionary formulation of person–situation interactions , 2009 .

[23]  B. Roberts,et al.  Back to the Future: Personality and Assessment and Personality Development. , 2009, Journal of research in personality.

[24]  M. Withey,et al.  The Strong Situation Hypothesis , 2009, Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.

[25]  Peter V. W. Hartmann,et al.  Five Factor Model , 2009 .

[26]  Daniel A. Newman.  Missing data techniques and low response rates: The role of systematic nonresponse parameters , 2008 .

[27]  S. J. Motowidlo,et al.  Effects of Personality Characteristics on Knowledge, Skill, and Performance in Servicing Retail Customers , 2008 .

[28]  F. Morgeson,et al.  Human resource configurations: investigating fit with the organizational context. , 2008, The Journal of applied psychology.

[29]  Jaime B. Henning,et al.  Test of Motowidlo et al.'s (1997) Theory of Individual Differences in Task and Contextual Performance , 2008 .

[30]  Donald R. Lichtenstein,et al.  The Retail Value Chain: Linking Employee Perceptions to Employee Performance, Customer Evaluations, and Store Performance , 2008, Mark. Sci..

[31]  James M. LeBreton,et al.  Multivariate relative importance: extending relative weight analysis to multivariate criterion spaces. , 2008, The Journal of applied psychology.

[32]  In-Sue Oh,et al.  INCREMENTAL VALIDITY OF PERCEPTUAL SPEED AND ACCURACY OVER GENERAL MENTAL ABILITY , 2008 .

[33]  P. Hanges,et al.  A network model of organizational climate: Friendship clusters, subgroup agreement, and climate schemas , 2008 .

[34]  Neal Schmitt,et al.  ARE WE GETTING FOOLED AGAIN? COMING TO TERMS WITH LIMITATIONS IN THE USE OF PERSONALITY TESTS FOR PERSONNEL SELECTION , 2007 .

[35]  T. Judge,et al.  IN SUPPORT OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT IN ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS , 2007 .

[36]  Robert P. Tett,et al.  Personality tests at the crossroads: A response to Morgeson, Campion, Dipboye, Hollenbeck, Murphy, and Schmitt (2007). , 2007 .

[37]  Michael R Chernick,et al.  Bootstrap Methods: A Guide for Practitioners and Researchers , 2007 .

[38]  J. Connor-Smith,et al.  Relations between personality and coping: a meta-analysis. , 2007, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[39]  R. L. Dipboye,et al.  RECONSIDERING THE USE OF PERSONALITY TESTS IN PERSONNEL SELECTION CONTEXTS , 2007 .

[40]  L. Jensen‐Campbell,et al.  Do Big Five personality traits associated with self-control influence the regulation of anger and aggression?☆ , 2007 .

[41]  P. Sackett,et al.  Effects of Self-Deceptive Enhancement on Personality-Job Performance Relationships , 2007 .

[42]  Donald H. Kluemper,et al.  Evidence of Predictive and Incremental Validity of Personality Factors, Vocal Attractiveness and the Situational Interview , 2007 .

[43]  G. D. Bruin,et al.  The relation between conscientiousness, empowerment and performance. , 2007 .

[44]  D. Jackson,et al.  PERSONALITY MEASURES AS PREDICTORS OF JOB PERFORMANCE: A META‐ANALYTIC REVIEW , 2006 .

[45]  Gilad Chen,et al.  A multilevel integration of personality, climate, self-regulation, and performance. , 2006 .

[46]  T. Judge,et al.  Loving yourself abundantly: relationship of the narcissistic personality to self- and other perceptions of workplace deviance, leadership, and task and contextual performance. , 2006, The Journal of applied psychology.

[47]  Saul Fine.  Validity Study: Relationships between Personality Measures and Job Performance Ratings among Far Eastern Couriers , 2006 .

[48]  Robert Hogan,et al.  Personality and the Fate of Organizations , 2006 .

[49]  Amit K. Nandkeolyar,et al.  ADAPTATION AND INTRAINDIVIDUAL VARIATION IN SALES OUTCOMES: EXPLORING THE INTERACTIVE EFFECTS OF PERSONALITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL OPPORTUNITY , 2006 .

[50]  Berrin Erdogan,et al.  A longitudinal study of the moderating role of extraversion: leader-member exchange, performance, and turnover during new executive development. , 2006, The Journal of applied psychology.

[51]  David C. Funder,et al.  Towards a resolution of the personality triad: Persons, situations, and behaviors , 2006 .

[52]  Kevin R. Murphy,et al.  Why Don't Measures of Broad Dimensions of Personality Perform Better As Predictors of Job Performance? , 2005 .

[53]  Jeffrey M. Conte,et al.  Polychronicity, Big Five Personality Dimensions, and Sales Performance , 2005 .

[54]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  Self-monitoring as a moderator of the relationships between personality traits and performance. , 2005 .

[55]  S. T. Hunt,et al.  Racial Differences in Socially Desirable Responding in Selection Contexts: Magnitude and Consequences , 2005, Journal of personality assessment.

[56]  Jordan B. Peterson,et al.  Sources of openness/intellect: cognitive and neuropsychological correlates of the fifth factor of personality. , 2005, Journal of personality.

[57]  Ian R. Gellatly,et al.  The Moderating Effect of Situation Strength on the Relationship between Personality and Provision of Effort , 2005 .

[58]  Cheryl Burke Jarvis,et al.  The problem of measurement model misspecification in behavioral and organizational research and some recommended solutions. , 2005, The Journal of applied psychology.

[59]  Lucy W. Gibson,et al.  Broad and Narrow Personality Traits in Relation to the Job Performance of Camp Counselors , 2005 .

[60]  Nicholas R. Martin,et al.  Investigating Nonlinear Conscientiousness-Job Performance Relations for Clerical Employees , 2005 .

[61]  Avshalom Caspi,et al.  Personality development: stability and change. , 2005, Annual review of psychology.

[62]  Peter Warr,et al.  Personality and Sales Performance: Situational Variation and Interactions between Traits , 2005 .

[63]  W. Swann,et al.  Personality Psychology’s Comeback and Its Emerging Symbiosis With Social Psychology , 2005, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[64]  Richard L. Griffith,et al.  Using Personality Constructs to Predict Performance: Narrow or Broad Bandwidth , 2004 .

[65]  Jill C. Bradley,et al.  The big five personality traits and individual job performance growth trajectories in maintenance and transitional job stages. , 2004, The Journal of applied psychology.

[66]  Steven D. Caldwell,et al.  Toward an understanding of the relationships among organizational change, individual differences, and changes in person-environment fit: a cross-level study. , 2004, The Journal of applied psychology.

[67]  Gordon W. Cheung,et al.  Dimensionality and Validity of a Structured Telephone Reference Check Procedure , 2004 .

[68]  James M. LeBreton,et al.  History and Use of Relative Importance Indices in Organizational Research , 2004 .

[69]  Jeff W. Johnson.  Factors Affecting Relative Weights: The Influence of Sampling and Measurement Error , 2004 .

[70]  Robert E. Ployhart,et al.  A Monte Carlo Comparison of Relative Importance Methodologies , 2004 .

[71]  D. Bowen,et al.  Understanding HRM–Firm Performance Linkages: The Role of the “Strength” of the HRM System , 2004 .

[72]  Dawn S. Carlson,et al.  When Conscientiousness Isn’t Enough: Emotional Exhaustion and Performance Among Call Center Customer Service Representatives , 2004 .

[73]  L. Witt,et al.  Social skill as moderator of the conscientiousness-performance relationship: convergent results across four studies. , 2003, The Journal of applied psychology.

[74]  Tatyana V. Avdeyeva,et al.  Measuring individual and cultural differences in implicit trait theories. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[75]  P. Salovey,et al.  Emotional intelligence, personality, and the perceived quality of social relationships , 2003 .

[76]  R. Tett,et al.  A personality trait-based interactionist model of job performance. , 2003, The Journal of applied psychology.

[77]  D. Budescu,et al.  The dominance analysis approach for comparing predictors in multiple regression. , 2003, Psychological methods.

[78]  Leslie B. Hammer,et al.  A field study of frame-of-reference effects on personality test validity. , 2003, The Journal of applied psychology.

[79]  Mark W. Lipsey,et al.  Those Confounded Moderators in Meta-Analysis: Good, Bad, and Ugly , 2003 .

[80]  J. Dabbs,et al.  Testosterone and the work of firefighters: Fighting fires and delivering medical care ☆ , 2003 .

[81]  Rick R. Jacobs,et al.  Validity Evidence Linking Polychronicity and Big Five Personality Dimensions to Absence, Lateness, and Supervisory Performance Ratings , 2003 .

[82]  L. Witt,et al.  Moderators of the openness to experience‐performance relationship , 2002 .

[83]  L. A. Witt,et al.  The Interactive Effects of Extraversion and Conscientiousness on Performance , 2002 .

[84]  N. Schmitt,et al.  Situational Judgment and Job Performance , 2002 .

[85]  M. Ashton,et al.  What is the central feature of extraversion? Social attention versus reward sensitivity. , 2002, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[86]  A. Pincus,et al.  The meaning of autonomy: on and beyond the interpersonal circumplex. , 2002, Journal of personality.

[87]  Dennis Doverspike,et al.  The Validity of “Mini” Simulations for Mexican Retail Salespeople , 2002 .

[88]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  Personality and job performance: test of the mediating effects of motivation among sales representatives. , 2002, The Journal of applied psychology.

[89]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  The interactive effects of conscientiousness and agreeableness on job performance. , 2002, The Journal of applied psychology.

[90]  Piers Steel,et al.  Comparing meta-analytic moderator estimation techniques under realistic conditions. , 2002, The Journal of applied psychology.

[91]  Tom J. Brown,et al.  The Customer Orientation of Service Workers: Personality Trait Effects on Self-and Supervisor Performance Ratings , 2002 .

[92]  T. Judge,et al.  Relationship of core self-evaluations to goal setting, motivation, and performance. , 2001, The Journal of applied psychology.

[93]  G R Ferris,et al.  Interaction of social skill and general mental ability on job performance and salary. , 2001, The Journal of applied psychology.

[94]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  An investigation of personality similarity effects (relational and perceived) on peer and supervisor ratings and the role of familiarity and liking , 2001 .

[95]  J. P. Wanous,et al.  Single-Item Reliability: A Replication and Extension , 2001 .

[96]  Michael D. Mumford,et al.  UNDERSTANDING WORK USING THE OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION NETWORK (O*NET): IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RESEARCH , 2001 .

[97]  A. Caspi,et al.  Personality Development and the Person-Situation Debate: It's Déjà Vu All Over Again , 2001 .

[98]  Kevin R. Murphy,et al.  The Relation Between Personality and Contextual Performance in "Strong" Versus "Weak" Situations , 2001 .

[99]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  Personality and Performance at the Beginning of the New Millennium: What Do We Know and Where Do We Go Next? , 2001 .

[100]  R. McCrae.  5 Years of Progress: A Reply to Block , 2001 .

[101]  Gregory M. Hurtz,et al.  Personality and job performance: the Big Five revisited. , 2000, The Journal of applied psychology.

[102]  Jeffrey D. Kudisch,et al.  Conscientiousness as a Predictor of Productive and Counterproductive Behaviors , 2000 .

[103]  R. Tett,et al.  Situation Trait Relevance, Trait Expression, and Cross-Situational Consistency: Testing a Principle of Trait Activation , 2000 .

[104]  L. A. Witt,et al.  Incremental Validity of Empirically Keyed Biodata Scales over GMA and the Five Factor Personality Constructs , 2000 .

[105]  Ivan T. Robertson,et al.  Conscientiousness and managerial performance , 2000 .

[106]  J. W. Johnson.  A Heuristic Method for Estimating the Relative Weight of Predictor Variables in Multiple Regression , 2000, Multivariate behavioral research.

[107]  A. Furnham,et al.  Personality, learning style and work performance , 1999 .

[108]  Greg L. Stewart,et al.  Trait bandwidth and stages of job performance : Assessing differential effects for conscientiousness and its subtraits , 1999 .

[109]  Ronald H. Heck,et al.  An Introduction to Multilevel Modeling Techniques , 1999 .

[110]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  The Joint Relationship of Conscientiousness and Ability with Performance: Test of the Interaction Hypothesis , 1999 .

[111]  Duane T. Wegener,et al.  Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. , 1999 .

[112]  A. Ryan,et al.  Effects of Nonlinearity and Heteroscedasticity on the Validity of Conscientiousness in Predicting Overall Job Performance , 1999 .

[113]  Wayne A. Hochwarter,et al.  Job Satisfaction and Performance: The Moderating Effects of Value Attainment and Affective Disposition , 1999 .

[114]  M. L. Kelly,et al.  PERSONALITY MEASURES AND BIODATA: EVIDENCE REGARDING THEIR INCREMENTAL PREDICTIVE VALUE IN THE LIFE INSURANCE INDUSTRY , 1999 .

[115]  Matthew S. O'Connell,et al.  Prediction of Mulitdimensional Criteria: Distinguishing Task and contextual Performance , 1998 .

[116]  Gregory J. Feist.  A Meta-Analysis of Personality in Scientific and Artistic Creativity , 1998, Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.

[117]  Kenneth S. Law,et al.  Toward A Taxonomy of Multidimensional Constructs , 1998 .

[118]  P. Roth,et al.  A Meta-Analytic Review of Predictors of Job Performance for Salespeople , 1998 .

[119]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  Five-Factor Model of personality and Performance in Jobs Involving Interpersonal Interactions , 1998 .

[120]  J. Hogan,et al.  Relations Between Contextual Performance, Personality, and Occupational Advancement , 1998 .

[121]  J. Hogan.  Personality and Job Performance , 1998 .

[122]  Juan I. Sanchez,et al.  Moderator Search in Meta-Analysis: A Review and Cautionary Note on Existing Approaches , 1998 .

[123]  J. Finch,et al.  Competitiveness mediates the link between personality and group performance. , 1997, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[124]  Daniel M. Cable,et al.  APPLICANT PERSONALITY, ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE, AND ORGANIZATION ATTRACTION , 1997 .

[125]  J. Salgado,et al.  Personality and Job Performance in Financial Services Managers , 1997 .

[126]  J. Salgado.  The Five Factor Model of personality and job performance in the European Community. , 1997, The Journal of applied psychology.

[127]  G. Stewart,et al.  Reward structure as a moderator of the relationship between extraversion and sales performance. , 1996, The Journal of applied psychology.

[128]  E. Kevin Kelloway,et al.  Time management and achievement striving interact to predict car sales performance. , 1996 .

[129]  James R. Van Scotter,et al.  Interpersonal facilitation and job dedication as separate facets of contextual performance. , 1996 .

[130]  Rick R. Jacobs,et al.  Selecting Bus Drivers: Multiple Predictors, Multiple Perspectives on Validity, and Multiple Estimates of Utility , 1996 .

[131]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  Effects of impression management and self-deception on the predictive validity of personality constructs. , 1996, The Journal of applied psychology.

[132]  Sheri J. Broyles,et al.  Creativity and the Five-Factor Model , 1996 .

[133]  R. Koestner,et al.  Distinguishing Reactive versus Reflective AutonomY , 1996 .

[134]  W. Graziano,et al.  Perceiving interpersonal conflict and reacting to it: the case for agreeableness. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[135]  K. M. Kacmar,et al.  P=f(M X A): Cognitive Ability as a Moderator of the Relationship Between Personality and Job Performance , 1995 .

[136]  J. Michael Crant,et al.  The Proactive Personality Scale and objective job performance among real estate agents. , 1995 .

[137]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  ANTECEDENTS OF INVOLUNTARY TURNOVER DUE TO A REDUCTION IN FORCE , 1994 .

[138]  Theodore L. Hayes,et al.  Personality correlates of success in total quality manufacturing , 1994 .

[139]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  Validity of observer ratings of the big five personality factors , 1994 .

[140]  D. Budescu.  Dominance analysis: A new approach to the problem of relative importance of predictors in multiple regression. , 1993 .

[141]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  Conscientiousness and performance of sales representatives: Test of the mediating effects of goal setting. , 1993 .

[142]  A. Caspi,et al.  When Do Individual Differences Matter? A Paradoxical Theory of Personality Coherence , 1993 .

[143]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  Autonomy as a moderator of the relationships between the Big Five personality dimensions and job performance. , 1993 .

[144]  L. R. Goldberg,et al.  Integration of the big five and circumplex approaches to trait structure. , 1992, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[145]  L. A. Pervin.  Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research , 1992 .

[146]  Fritz Drasgow,et al.  Bootstrap estimates of standard errors in validity generalization , 1992 .

[147]  L. Hough.  The 'Big Five' Personality Variables--Construct Confusion: Description Versus Prediction , 1992 .

[148]  Jennifer A. Chatman,et al.  PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE: A PROFILE COMPARISON APPROACH TO ASSESSING PERSON-ORGANIZATION FIT , 1991 .

[149]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND JOB PERFORMANCE: A META-ANALYSIS , 1991 .

[150]  Julian Barling,et al.  Predicting Sales Performance, Job Satisfaction, and Depression by Using the Achievement Strivings and Impatience-Irritability Dimensions of Type A Behavior , 1990 .

[151]  Robert F. Lusch,et al.  Personal Differences, Job Tension, Job Outcomes, and Store Performance: A Study of Retail Store Managers , 1990 .

[152]  S. Hobfoll.  Conservation of resources. A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. , 1989, The American psychologist.

[153]  D. Day,et al.  Personality and job performance: Evidence of incremental validity. , 1989 .

[154]  J. Hollenbeck,et al.  An empirical examination of the antecedents of commitment to difficult goals. , 1989 .

[155]  Paul T. Costa,et al.  From catalog to classification: Murray's needs and the five-factor model. , 1988 .

[156]  Sheila M. Puffer.  Prosocial behavior, noncompliant behavior, and work performance among commission salespeople. , 1987 .

[157]  R. McCrae.  Creativity, divergent thinking, and openness to experience. , 1987 .

[158]  B. Efron.  Better Bootstrap Confidence Intervals , 1987 .

[159]  R. Riggio.  Assessment of Basic Social Skills , 1986 .

[160]  L. Treviño.  Ethical Decision Making in Organizations: A Person-Situation Interactionist Model , 1986 .

[161]  Alan J. Dubinsky,et al.  Antecedents of retail salesperson performance: A path-analytic perspective , 1986 .

[162]  William G. Graziano,et al.  Extraversion, social cognition, and the salience of aversiveness in social encounters. , 1985 .

[163]  G. Pugh.  The California Psychological Inventory and police selection. , 1985 .

[164]  C. Orpen.  The effects of need for achievement and need for independence on the relationship between perceived job attributes and managerial satisfaction and performance. , 1985, International Journal of Psychology.

[165]  R. Larsen,et al.  Person x situation interactions: choice of situations and congruence response models. , 1984, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[166]  John W. Slocum,et al.  Person–situation interaction: Competing models of fit. , 1982 .

[167]  Lawrence H. Peters,et al.  The moderating effect of situational control of performance variance on the relationship between individual differences and performance , 1982 .

[168]  T. C. Monson,et al.  Specifying when personality traits can and cannot predict behavior: An alternative to abandoning the attempt to predict single-act criteria. , 1982 .

[169]  J. Schuerger,et al.  Male and Female Corrections Officers: Personality and Rated Performance , 1982 .

[170]  C. J. Mills,et al.  Personality characteristics of effective state police officers. , 1980 .

[171]  R. Bagozzi.  Salesforce Performance and Satisfaction as a Function of Individual Difference, Interpersonal, and Situational Factors , 1978 .

[172]  Mick Bennett.  Testing management theories cross-culturally. , 1977 .

[173]  Richard M. Steers,et al.  The Role of Achievement Motivation in Job Design. , 1977 .

[174]  Richard M. Steers,et al.  Effects of need for achievement on the job performance-job attitude relationship. , 1975 .

[175]  L. Cronbach.  Beyond the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology. , 1975 .

[176]  B. Ekehammar,et al.  Interactionism in personality from a historical perspective. , 1974, Psychological bulletin.

[177]  K S Bowers,et al.  Situationism in psychology: an analysis and a critique. , 1973, Psychological review.

[178]  W. Mischel.  Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality. , 1973, Psychological review.

[179]  W. F. Straub,et al.  Achieving consistency: A Study of basketball officiating , 1973 .

[180]  S. B. Sells,et al.  THE DIFFERENTIAL VALIDITY OF PERSONALITY, PERSONAL HISTORY, AND APTITUDE DATA FOR MINORITY AND NONMINORITY EMPLOYEES , 1972 .

[181]  R. Hogan.  Personality characteristics of highly rated policemen. , 1971 .

[182]  J. Slocum,et al.  Prediction of job success and employee satisfaction for executives and foremen. , 1971 .

[183]  W. K. Graham,et al.  PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF SUPERVISORY RATINGS , 1969 .

[184]  Garlie A. Forehand,et al.  ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION IN STUDIES OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR. , 1964, Psychological bulletin.

[185]  L. Cronbach.  The two disciplines of scientific psychology. , 1957 .

[186]  Maja O’Connor,et al.  A Longitudinal Study , 2013 .

[187]  C. Benţea,et al.  Comparative aspects concerning the effects of extraversion on performance in a cognitive task in competitive and cooperative conditions , 2012 .

[188]  Blake E. Ashforth,et al.  Curiosity adapted the cat: the role of trait curiosity in newcomer adaptation. , 2011, The Journal of applied psychology.

[189]  P. Costa,et al.  The five-factor theory of personality. , 2008 .

[190]  Irene Alonso Aparicio,et al.  Recensión: "Theories in second language acquisition: an introduction. Van Patten, B. & Williams, J. (eds.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007" , 2008 .

[191]  H. Murray,et al.  Explorations in Personality , 2007 .

[192]  Chris J Jackson,et al.  Benefits of all work and no play: the relationship between neuroticism and performance as a function of resource allocation. , 2006, The Journal of applied psychology.

[193]  Amie Lawrence.  Screening for person-job fit: Incremental validity of a congruence based approach to assessment. , 2004 .

[194]  G. Norris.  Using measures of personality and self-efficacy to predict work performance / , 2002 .

[195]  B. Schneider.  Using the Big -Five personality factors in the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, California Psychological Inventory, and Inwald Personality Inventory to predict police performance , 2002 .

[196]  杨文秀,et al.  此处“personality”译法探析 , 2000 .

[197]  A. Bandura.  Social cognitive theory of personality. , 1999 .

[198]  F. Morgeson,et al.  O*NET's theoretical contributions to job analysis research. , 1999 .

[199]  Paul R. Sackett,et al.  Ability-personality interactions when predicting job performance , 1998 .

[200]  P. Costa,et al.  Personality trait structure as a human universal. , 1997, The American psychologist.

[201]  R. Doherty.  The Emotional Contagion Scale: A Measure of Individual Differences , 1997 .

[202]  N. Eisenberg,et al.  Agreeableness: A Dimension of Personality , 1997 .

[203]  W. Mischel.  Personality and Assessment , 1996 .

[204]  M. Zuckerman.  The psychobiological model for impulsive unsocialized sensation seeking: a comparative approach. , 1996, Neuropsychobiology.

[205]  W. Mischel,et al.  A cognitive-affective system theory of personality: reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynamics, and invariance in personality structure. , 1995, Psychological review.

[206]  Esther M. Weekes.  The influence of personality dimensions and physical abilities on a pistol shooting task , 1995 .

[207]  L. R. Goldberg.  The structure of phenotypic personality traits. , 1993, The American psychologist.

[208]  R. Lennox,et al.  Conventional wisdom on measurement: A structural equation perspective. , 1991 .

[209]  A Furnham,et al.  Extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and recreational choice , 1991 .

[210]  J. S. Wiggins,et al.  Agency and communion as conceptual coordinates for the understanding and measurement of interpersonal behavior. , 1991 .

[211]  D. Gallagher.  Extraversion, neuroticism and appraisal of stressful academic events , 1990 .

[212]  P. Costa,et al.  Personality in adulthood , 1990 .

[213]  M. Argyle,et al.  Happiness and social skills , 1990 .

[214]  Aileen B. Sedman,et al.  A longitudinal study , 1987 .

[215]  R L Helmreich,et al.  The honeymoon effect in job performance: temporal increases in the predictive power of achievement motivation. , 1986, The Journal of applied psychology.

[216]  G. H. Lucas,et al.  The relationships between job attitudes, personal characteristics, and job outcomes: A study of retail store managers. , 1985 .

[217]  Mark Snyder,et al.  Personality and social behavior , 1985 .

[218]  D. Watson,et al.  Negative affectivity: the disposition to experience aversive emotional states. , 1984, Psychological bulletin.

[219]  Seymour Adler,et al.  Personality and organizational behavior. , 1984 .

[220]  William Ickes,et al.  A Basic Paradigm for the Study of Personality, Roles, and Social Behavior , 1982 .

[221]  P. Costa,et al.  Influence of extraversion and neuroticism on subjective well-being: happy and unhappy people. , 1980, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[222]  Larry J. Rosenberg,et al.  Determining job performance in the industrial sales force , 1977 .

[223]  J. Slocum.  Needs, Environmental Work Satisfaction, and Job Performance. , 1970 .

[224]  R. Cattell,et al.  Handbook for the sixteen personality factor questionnaire (16 PF) , 1970 .

[225]  F. Campos.  Validity of personality measures in personnel selection , 1966 .

[226]  R. Cattell,et al.  Personality, role, mood, and situation-perception: a unifying theory of modulators. , 1963, Psychological review.

[227]  P. Lazarsfeld.  Principles of Topological Psychology , 1938 .

[228]  A. Tellegen,et al.  An alternative "description of personality": the big-five factor structure. , 1990, Journal of personality and social psychology.