1 CIRAD UMR Innovation, 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France 2 ETC Foundation, Leusden, Netherlands 3 Faculte des Sciences agronomiques, Universite d’Abomey-Calavi, 01 BP 526 Cotonou, Benin 4 Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) Headquarters, Kaptagat Road, Loresho, Nairobi, Kenya 5 Institute of Natural Resources, PO Box 100 396, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa 6 Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development, University of Pretoria, South Africa 7 Agricultural Economics Research Institute, Wageningen University & Research, Netherlands 8 International Centre for development-oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA), Montpellier, France 9 Knowledge, Innovation and Technology Group, Wageningen University & Research, Netherlands 10 CIRAD UMR ART-DEV, 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France Introduction Recognition is growing that strong and dynamic innovation systems are essential for adaptation to the rapid changes being experienced by smallholder farmers, including growing population pressure on limited natural resources and climate change. Yet relatively little is documented about how innovation processes unfold in small-scale agriculture. Most researchers, development practitioners and policymakers implicitly or explicitly work with a linear model of transfer of “innovations” from research via extension to farmers for adoption. This seldom reflects how innovation actually happens. Recent studies have revealed that effective innovation takes place within heterogeneous networks of researchers, farmers, entrepreneurs, NGOs, government and other stakeholders. They interact over time in a non-linear, iterative and non-predictable way to solve a pressing problem, adapt to new conditions or seize new opportunities. The outcome of such interactions usually consists of a mix of technical, organisational and institutional innovations developed and refined “on the go”, often quite different from what the initiators envisaged.
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