Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Positive Psychological Capital on Employee Attitudes, Behaviors, and Performance.

The positive core construct of psychological capital (or simply PsyCap), consisting of the psychological resources of hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism, has recently been demonstrated to be open to human resource development (HRD) and performance management. The research stream on PsyCap has now grown to the point that a quantitative summary analysis of its impact on employee attitudes, behaviors, and especially performance is needed. The present meta-analysis included 51 independent samples (representing a total of N � 12,567 employees) that met the inclusion criteria. The results indicated the expected significant positive relationships between PsyCap and desirable employee attitudes (job satisfaction, organizational commitment, psychological well-being), desirable employee behaviors (citizenship), and multiple measures of performance (self, supervisor evaluations, and objective). There was also a significant negative relationship between PsyCap and undesirable employee attitudes (cynicism, turnover intentions, job stress, and anxiety) and undesirable employee behaviors (deviance). A sub-analysis found no major differences between the types of performance measures used (i.e., between self, subjective, and objective). Finally, the analysis of moderators revealed the relationship between PsyCap and employee outcomes were strongest in studies conducted in the United States and in the service sector. These results provide a strong evidence-based recommendation for the use of PsyCap in HRD and performance programs. Theoretical contributions, future research directions, and practical guidelines for HRD conclude the article.

[1]  T. Judge,et al.  Relationship of core self-evaluations traits--self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability--with job satisfaction and job performance: a meta-analysis. , 2001, The Journal of applied psychology.

[2]  Donald B. Rubin,et al.  Further meta-analytic procedures for assessing cognitive gender differences. , 1982 .

[3]  B. Avolio,et al.  Context and leadership: An examination of the nine-factor full-range leadership theory using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. , 2003 .

[4]  Fred Luthans,et al.  Experimental Analysis of a Web-Based Training Intervention to Develop Positive Psychological Capital , 2008 .

[5]  Fred O. Walumbwa,et al.  AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG LEADER AND FOLLOWER PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL, SERVICE CLIMATE, AND JOB PERFORMANCE , 2010 .

[6]  A. Bandura.  Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control , 1997, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[7]  G. Spreitzer.  PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT IN THE WORKPLACE: DIMENSIONS, MEASUREMENT, AND VALIDATION , 1995 .

[8]  Paul E. Spector,et al.  A model of work frustration–aggression , 1999 .

[9]  C. R. Snyder,et al.  Handbook of positive psychology , 2002 .

[10]  B. Avolio,et al.  The Development and Resulting Performance Impact of Positive Psychological Capital. , 2010 .

[11]  S. Hobfoll.  Social and Psychological Resources and Adaptation , 2002 .

[12]  W. Mobley,et al.  Review and Conceptual Analysis of the Employee Turnover Process , 1979 .

[13]  Alexander D. Stajkovic,et al.  Social cognitive theory and self-efficacy: Goin beyond traditional motivational and behavioral approaches , 1998 .

[14]  John E. Hunter,et al.  Methods of Meta-Analysis , 1989 .

[15]  I. Ajzen,et al.  Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research , 1977 .

[16]  Charles W. Champ,et al.  Exact results for shewhart control charts with supplementary runs rules , 1987 .

[17]  R. Bennett,et al.  A TYPOLOGY OF DEVIANT WORKPLACE BEHAVIORS: A MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING STUDY , 1995 .

[18]  Blake E. Ashforth,et al.  Change in Job Search Behaviors and Employment Outcomes , 2000 .

[19]  J. R Hackman,et al.  The Perils of Positivity , 2009 .

[20]  C. Hedges.  Empire of Illusion: The End of Literacy and the Triumph of Spectacle , 2009 .

[21]  Xiao-Hua Zhou,et al.  Statistical Methods for Meta‐Analysis , 2008 .

[22]  P. Harms,et al.  Emotional Intelligence and Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-Analysis , 2010 .

[23]  James B. Avey,et al.  The Interactive Effects of Psychological Capital and Organizational Identity on Employee Organizational Citizenship and Deviance Behaviors , 2010 .

[24]  Donelson R. Forsyth,et al.  Handbook of social and clinical psychology : the health perspective , 1991 .

[25]  Larry Dossey,et al.  Optimism , 1908, Explore.

[26]  F. Luthans.  The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior , 2002 .

[27]  James B. Avey,et al.  Authentic Leadership and Positive Psychological Capital , 2009 .

[28]  A. Bandura.  Personal and collective efficacy in human adaptation and change. , 1998 .

[29]  Paul R. Sackett,et al.  Citizenship and Counterproductive Behavior: Clarifying Relations Between the Two Domains , 2006 .

[30]  Barbara L. Fredrickson,et al.  The Value of Positive Emotions , 2003, American Scientist.

[31]  Meni Koslowsky,et al.  DETECTING MODERATORS WITH META‐ANALYSIS: AN EVALUATION AND COMPARISON OF TECHNIQUES , 1993 .

[32]  Anat Rafaeli,et al.  Expression of Emotion as Part of the Work Role , 1987 .

[33]  F. Luthans,et al.  The Additive Value of Positive Psychological Capital in Predicting Work Attitudes and Behaviors , 2010 .

[34]  James B. Avey,et al.  Can Positive Employees Help Positive Organizational Change? Impact of Psychological Capital and Emotions on Relevant Attitudes and Behaviors , 2008 .

[35]  Alexander D. Stajkovic,et al.  Development of a core confidence-higher order construct. , 2006, The Journal of applied psychology.

[36]  Fred Luthans,et al.  Impact of positive psychological capital on employee well-being over time. , 2010, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[37]  F. Luthans,et al.  More evidence on the value of Chinese workers' psychological capital: A potentially unlimited competitive resource? , 2008 .

[38]  Rex B. Kline,et al.  Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling , 1998 .

[39]  C. R. Snyder.  TARGET ARTICLE: Hope Theory: Rainbows in the Mind , 2002 .

[40]  Fred Luthans,et al.  Emerging Positive Organizational Behavior , 2007 .

[41]  C. R. Snyder,et al.  Oxford handbook of positive psychology, 2nd ed. , 2009 .

[42]  C. R. Snyder,et al.  Hope and health. , 1991 .

[43]  L. Hughes,et al.  Using positivity, transformational leadership and empowerment to combat employee negativity , 2008 .

[44]  S. DeLaune,et al.  Learned optimism. , 1993, Aspen's advisor for nurse executives.

[45]  Fred Luthans,et al.  Human, Social, and Now Positive Psychological Capital Management: INVESTING IN PEOPLE FOR COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE , 2004 .

[46]  Fred Luthans,et al.  Psychological capital: A positive resource for combating employee stress and turnover , 2009 .

[47]  R. Bies,et al.  Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Good Soldier Syndrome , 1989 .

[48]  Laura B. Cardinal,et al.  Making a life in the field of organization science , 2007 .

[49]  Bruce J. Avolio,et al.  The mediating role of psychological capital in the supportive organizational climate—employee performance relationship , 2008 .

[50]  James B. Avey,et al.  POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL: MEASUREMENT AND RELATIONSHIP WITH PERFORMANCE AND SATISFACTION , 2007 .

[51]  Bruce J. Avolio,et al.  The impact of positivity and transparency on trust in leaders and their perceived effectiveness , 2010, The Leadership Quarterly.

[52]  Kenneth S. Law,et al.  Toward A Taxonomy of Multidimensional Constructs , 1998 .

[53]  A. Bakker,et al.  The job demands-resources model : state of the art , 2007 .

[54]  R. Rosenthal.  Parametric measures of effect size. , 1994 .

[55]  John P. Wanous,et al.  The role of judgment calls in meta-analysis. , 1989 .

[56]  J. Quick,et al.  The emerging positive agenda in organizations: greater than a trickle, but not yet a deluge , 2009 .

[57]  Meni Koslowsky,et al.  On the efficacy of credibility intervals as indicators of moderator effects in meta-analytic research , 1993 .

[58]  Brayden G. King,et al.  The Practice of Theory Borrowing in Organizational Studies: Current Issues and Future Directions , 2009 .

[59]  Alexander D. Stajkovic,et al.  Self-efficacy and work-related performance: A meta-analysis. , 1998 .

[60]  Fred Luthans,et al.  : Authentically leading groups: The mediating role of collective psychological capital and trust , 2011 .

[61]  S. Fineman.  On Being Positive: Concerns and Counterpoints , 2006 .

[62]  Kibeom Lee,et al.  Organizational citizenship behavior and workplace deviance: the role of affect and cognitions. , 2002, The Journal of applied psychology.

[63]  S. Lyubomirsky,et al.  The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success? , 2005, Psychological bulletin.

[64]  Bruce J. Avolio,et al.  Experimentally Analyzing the Impact of Leader Positivity on Follower Positivity and Performance , 2011 .