Models for predicting disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation in drinking waters: a chronological review.

Disinfection for the supply of safe drinking water forms a variety of known and unknown byproducts through reactions between the disinfectants and natural organic matter. Chronic exposure to disinfection byproducts through the ingestion of drinking water, inhalation and dermal contact during regular indoor activities (e.g., showering, bathing, cooking) may pose cancer and non-cancer risks to human health. Since their discovery in drinking water in 1974, numerous studies have presented models to predict DBP formation in drinking water. To date, more than 48 scientific publications have reported 118 models to predict DBP formation in drinking waters. These models were developed through laboratory and field-scale experiments using raw, pretreated and synthetic waters. This paper aims to review DBP predictive models, analyze the model variables, assess the model advantages and limitations, and to determine their applicability to different water supply systems. The paper identifies the current challenges and future research needs to better control DBP formation. Finally, important directions for future research are recommended to protect human health and to follow the best management practices.

[1]  P. Champagne,et al.  Risk from exposure to trihalomethanes during shower: probabilistic assessment and control. , 2009, The Science of the total environment.

[2]  G. Amy,et al.  Empirical modeling of bromate formation during ozonation of bromide-containing waters , 1996 .

[3]  George B Arhonditsis,et al.  Quantitative assessment of trihalomethane formation using simulations of reaction kinetics. , 2002, Water research.

[4]  Jinhui Jeanne Huang,et al.  Using Bayesian statistics to estimate the coefficients of a two- component second-order chlorine bulk decay model for a water distribution system. , 2007, Water research.

[5]  James K. Edzwald,et al.  SURROGATE PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING ORGANIC MATTER AND THM PRECURSORS , 1985 .

[6]  P. Singer,et al.  Factors influencing the formation and relative distribution of haloacetic acids and trihalomethanes in drinking water. , 2003, Environmental science & technology.

[7]  Tahir Husain,et al.  Fuzzy risk-based decision-making approach for selection of drinking water disinfectants , 2007 .

[8]  G. Amy,et al.  A predictive model for chloroform formation from humic acid , 1983 .

[9]  Manuel J. Rodríguez,et al.  Occurrence of THMs and HAAs in experimental chlorinated waters of the Quebec City area (Canada). , 2003, Chemosphere.

[10]  L. Semerjian,et al.  Modeling the formation of trihalomethanes in drinking waters of Lebanon , 2009, Environmental monitoring and assessment.

[11]  R. Clark,et al.  Predicting Chlorine Residuals and Formation of TTHMs in Drinking Water , 1998 .

[12]  Michael A. Pereira.  Carcinogenic Activity of Dichloroacetic Acid and Trichloroacetic Acid in the Liver of Female B6C3F1 Mice , 1996 .

[13]  C. Weisel,et al.  Human respiratory uptake of chloroform and haloketones during showering , 2005, Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology.

[14]  Susan D. Richardson,et al.  NEW DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT ISSUES: EMERGING DBPs AND ALTERNATIVE ROUTES OF EXPOSURE , 2005 .

[15]  Manuel J. Rodríguez,et al.  Modeling the susceptibility of drinking water utilities to form high concentrations of trihalomethanes , 2000 .

[16]  Wigle Dt,et al.  Safe drinking water: a public health challenge. , 1998 .

[17]  G. Amy,et al.  Empirically and theoretically-based models for predicting brominated ozonated by-products , 1994 .

[18]  R. Sadiq,et al.  Disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water and predictive models for their occurrence: a review. , 2004, The Science of the total environment.

[19]  Philip C. Singer,et al.  Correlations Between Trihalomethanes and Total Organic Halides Formed During Water Treatment , 1989, Journal AWWA.

[20]  P. Chiang,et al.  Effects of chlorination on THMs formation in raw water , 1996 .

[21]  P. Lioy,et al.  Chloroform exposure and the health risk associated with multiple uses of chlorinated tap water. , 1990, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[22]  C. Nokes,et al.  Modelling the formation of brominated trihalomethanes in chlorinated drinking waters , 1999 .

[23]  K. Urano,et al.  Empirical rate equation for trihalomethane formation with chlorination of humic substances in water , 1983 .

[24]  James K. Edzwald,et al.  Coagulation in Drinking Water Treatment: Particles, Organics and Coagulants , 1993 .

[25]  Benjamin W. Lykins,et al.  Alternative Disinfectants for Drinking Water Treatment , 1994 .

[26]  Charles N. Haas,et al.  Kinetics of wastewater chlorine demand exertion , 1984 .

[27]  S. Meriç,et al.  Monitoring and modeling of trihalomethanes (THMs) for a water treatment plant in Istanbul , 2005 .

[28]  Zaid K. Chowdhury,et al.  Developing Models for Predicting Trihalomethane Formation Potential and Kinetics , 1987 .

[29]  J. Ibarluzea,et al.  Trihalomethanes in water supplies in the San Sebastian area, Spain , 1994, Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[30]  J. Rook.  Formation of Haloforms during Chlorination of natural Waters , 1974 .

[31]  W. Elshorbagy,et al.  Simulation of THM species in water distribution systems , 2000 .

[32]  Z. Alach.  Australian drinking water guidelines , 2008 .

[33]  M. Wong,et al.  Modeling of trihalomethane (THM) formation via chlorination of the water from Dongjiang River (source water for Hong Kong's drinking water). , 2007, The Science of the total environment.

[34]  John D. Dietz,et al.  Combined chlorine dissipation: Pipe material, water quality, and hydraulic effects , 2007 .

[35]  L D Marrett,et al.  Case-control study of colon and rectal cancers and chlorination by-products in treated water. , 2000, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[36]  R J Bull,et al.  Liver tumor induction in B6C3F1 mice by dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate. , 1990, Toxicology.

[37]  B. Dempsey,et al.  The Coagulation of Humic Substances by Means of Aluminum Salts , 1984 .

[38]  Gary L. Amy,et al.  Bromide Ion Incorporation Into Brominated Disinfection By-Products , 2006 .

[39]  J. Reif,et al.  Workshop report. Health risks of drinking water chlorination by-products: report of an expert working group. , 1998, Chronic diseases in Canada.

[40]  Robert M. Clark,et al.  Control of microbial contaminants and disinfection by-products for drinking water in the US: cost and performance , 1998 .

[41]  David A. Reckhow,et al.  The Removal of Organic Halide Precursors by Preozonation and Alum Coagulation , 1984, Journal AWWA.

[42]  Rajya Lakshmi Boyalla.  Formation and modeling of disinfection by-products in Newfoundland communities , 2004 .

[43]  E. J. Read,et al.  Teratogenic effects of trichloroacetonitrile in the Long-Evans rat. , 1988, Teratology.

[44]  Jaeweon Cho,et al.  Disinfectant decay and disinfection by-products formation model development: chlorination and ozonation by-products. , 2004, Water research.

[45]  Rao Y. Surampalli,et al.  Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment , 2004 .

[46]  Philip C. Singer,et al.  DBPs in chlorinated North Carolina drinking waters , 1995 .

[47]  R. García-Villanova,et al.  Formation, evolution and modeling of trihalomethanes in the drinking water of a town: I. At the municipal treatment utilities , 1997 .

[48]  R J Bull,et al.  Evaluation of mutagenic and carcinogenic properties of brominated and chlorinated acetonitriles: by-products of chlorination. , 1985, Fundamental and applied toxicology : official journal of the Society of Toxicology.

[49]  Tahir Husain,et al.  Evaluation of Drinking Water Treatment Technology: An Entropy-Based Fuzzy Application , 2006 .

[50]  R. Rathbun.  Regression equations for disinfection by-products for the Mississippi, Ohio and Missouri rivers , 1996 .

[51]  E. Diamadopoulos,et al.  Bromate formation during ozonation of groundwater in coastal areas in Greece , 2005 .

[52]  R. Rathbun.  Speciation of trihalomethane mixtures for the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio Rivers , 1996 .

[53]  M Dosemeci,et al.  Drinking Water Source and Chlorination Byproducts I. Risk of Bladder Cancer , 1998, Epidemiology.

[54]  J. E. Simmons,et al.  Integrated Disinfection By-Products Mixtures Research: Comprehensive Characterization of Water Concentrates Prepared from Chlorinated and Ozonated/Postchlorinated Drinking Water , 2008, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A.

[55]  P. Singer.  Control of Disinfection By‐Products in Drinking Water , 1994 .

[56]  R. C. Thurnau,et al.  Predicting the Formation of Chlorinated and Brominated By-Products , 2001 .

[57]  D. White,et al.  Natural organic matter and DBP formation potential in Alaskan water supplies. , 2003, Water research.

[58]  R. García-Villanova,et al.  Formation, evolution and modeling of trihalomethanes in the drinking water of a town. II. In the distribution system , 1997 .

[59]  A. Al-Jasser,et al.  Chlorine decay in drinking-water transmission and distribution systems: pipe service age effect. , 2007, Water research.

[60]  T. Lekkas,et al.  Use of a multiple regression model for predicting trihalomethane formation , 1998 .

[61]  J. E. Simmons,et al.  Disinfection byproducts: the next generation. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[62]  T. A. Bellar,et al.  The Occurrence of Organohalides in Chlorinated Drinking Waters , 1974 .

[63]  Manuel J. Rodríguez,et al.  Contribution of neural networks for modeling trihalomethanes occurrence in drinking water , 2002 .

[64]  C. M. Morrow,et al.  Use of regression models to link raw water characteristics to trihalomethane concentrations in drinking water , 1987 .

[65]  S. Richardson,et al.  Occurrence of a new generation of disinfection byproducts. , 2006, Environmental science & technology.

[66]  J. E. Simmons,et al.  Integrated Disinfection By-Products Mixtures Research: Disinfection of Drinking Waters by Chlorination and Ozonation/Postchlorination Treatment Scenarios , 2008, Journal of toxicology and environmental health. Part A.

[67]  Clifford P. Weisel,et al.  Halogenated DBP concentrations in a distribution system , 1998 .

[68]  Douglas C. Montgomery,et al.  Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers, Third edition , 1994 .

[69]  H. Gallard,et al.  Chlorination of natural organic matter: kinetics of chlorination and of THM formation. , 2002, Water research.

[70]  H. Zou,et al.  Formation of POX and NPOX with chlorination of fulvic acid in water: Empirical models , 1997 .

[71]  P. Chiang,et al.  Characteristics of organic precursors and their relationship with disinfection by-products. , 2001, Chemosphere.

[72]  G. Amy,et al.  Applying DBP models to full‐scale plants , 2000 .

[73]  W. King,et al.  Case-control study of bladder cancer and chlorination by-products in treated water (Ontario, Canada) , 1996, Cancer Causes & Control.

[74]  Z. Chowdhury,et al.  Developing a Computer Model to Simulate DBP Formation During Water Treatment , 1992 .

[75]  A. Al-Omari,et al.  Modeling trihalomethane formation for Jabal Amman water supply in Jordan , 2005 .

[76]  S. Banerji,et al.  Relationship of chlorine decay and THMs formation to NOM size. , 2003, Journal of hazardous materials.

[77]  Shankha K. Banerji,et al.  Using chlorine demand TO PREDICT TTHM and HAA9 formation , 2002 .

[78]  P. Champagne,et al.  AN INVESTIGATION ON PARAMETERS FOR MODELING THMs FORMATION , 2008 .

[79]  R. Andrew,et al.  Development of chlorine dioxide-related by-product models for drinking water treatment. , 2002, Water research.

[80]  Robert M. Clark,et al.  DBP Control in Drinking Water: Cost and Performance , 1994 .

[81]  Manuel J. Rodriguez,et al.  Estimation of water utility compliance with trihalomethane regulations using a modelling approach , 2000 .

[82]  J. Lou,et al.  A Study of Trihalomethanes Formation in a Water Distribution System , 1994 .

[83]  M. C. Antunes,et al.  Factorial analysis of the trihalomethanes formation in water disinfection using chlorine. , 2007, Analytica chimica acta.

[84]  M. Rebhun,et al.  THM, haloacetic acids and other organic DBPs formation in disinfection of bromide rich Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret) water , 2001 .

[85]  S. Swan,et al.  Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water and Spontaneous Abortion , 1998, Epidemiology.

[86]  Windsor Sung,et al.  Modeling DBP formation , 2000 .

[87]  Mark W. LeChevallier,et al.  DBP occurrence survey , 1997 .

[88]  J. Katzhendler,et al.  Trihalomethane formation in chlorinated drinking water: A kinetic model , 1991 .

[89]  T. Lekkas,et al.  Kinetics of the formation and decomposition of chlorination by-products in surface waters , 2004 .

[90]  David L Sedlak,et al.  Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from dimethylamine during chlorination. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[91]  Themistokles D. Lekkas,et al.  ORGANIC BY-PRODUCTS OF DRINKING WATER CHLORINATION , 1999 .

[92]  W. Grayman,et al.  Kinetics of chlorine decay , 1997 .

[93]  P. Toft,et al.  Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guideline , 1997 .

[94]  T. Lekkas,et al.  Development of Predictive Models for the Formation of Trihalomethanes and Haloacetic Acids during Chlorination of Bromide-Rich Water , 2004 .

[95]  V. Uyak,et al.  Investigation of bromide ion effects on disinfection by-products formation and speciation in an Istanbul water supply. , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[96]  M. Kogevinas,et al.  Disinfection Byproducts and Bladder Cancer: A Pooled Analysis , 2004, Epidemiology.

[97]  G. Arhonditsis,et al.  Multiple regression models: a methodology for evaluating trihalomethane concentrations in drinking water from raw water characteristics. , 2002, Chemosphere.

[98]  Richard A. Brown,et al.  DBP formation kinetics in a simulated distribution system. , 2001, Water research.

[99]  R. Clark,et al.  Predicting Chlorine Residuals in Drinking Water: Second Order Model , 2002 .

[100]  Manuel J. Rodríguez,et al.  Spatial and temporal evolution of trihalomethanes in three water distribution systems. , 2001, Water research.

[101]  V. Uyak,et al.  Seasonal variations of trihalomethanes (THMs) in water distribution networks of Istanbul City , 2005 .