Measurement of turbulent energy dissipation rates in the middle atmosphere by radar techniques: A review

Radars operating in the frequency band between 2 MHz and several hundred megahertz are capable of supplying a large data base of measurements of turbulent energy dissipation rates in the middle atmosphere. So far this has not been achieved; only occasionally have such radars been used to produce estimates of turbulence intensities. In order to encourage a greater emphasis on this aspect of radar studies of the middle atmosphere, this review summarizes the various techniques which can be used to measure turbulent energy dissipation rates. It is shown how absolute measurements of backscatter cross section can be used to measure turbulence intensities. A new theory is presented which shows that the power backscattered from the mesosphere depends on the turbulent energy dissipation rate, the electron density gradient, the neutral density scale height, the total electron density and the temperature gradient. The effects of turbulence on the width of signal spectra received by these radars are discussed, and it is shown how turbulence intensities may be extracted from spectral width measurements. The importance of removing nonturbulent processes which also broaden the width of the power spectra, such as wind shear broadening and beam width broadening, are stressed.

[1]  H. Booker.  A theory of scattering by nonisotropic irregularities with application to radar reflections from the aurora , 1956 .

[2]  W. Hocking.  Observation and measurement of turbulence m the middle atmosphere with a VHF radar , 1986 .

[3]  P. Rastogi,et al.  Scattering of radio waves from the mesosphere—2. Evidence for intermittent mesospheric turbulence , 1976 .

[4]  R. Hill,et al.  Relaxation to photochemical equilibrium of charged species within displaced air parcels in the D-region , 1979 .

[5]  P. K. James.  A review of radar observations of the troposphere in clear air conditions , 1980 .

[6]  A. Manson,et al.  Gravity waves of short period (5–90 min), in the lower thermosphere at 52°N (Saskatoon, Canada); 1978/1979 , 1981 .

[7]  W. S. Lewellen,et al.  A Numerical Study of Breaking Kelvin-Helmholtz Billows using a Reynolds-Stress Turbulence Closure Model , 1982 .

[8]  Kenneth S. Gage,et al.  Variability Of Cn2 At Poker Flat, Alaska, From Mesosphere, Stratosphere, Troposphere (MST) Doppler Radar Observations , 1982 .

[9]  D. N. Asimakopoulos,et al.  Quantitative bistatic acoustic sounding of the atmospheric boundary layer , 1978 .

[10]  S. Clifford,et al.  A Study of Convection Capped by a Stable Layer Using Doppler Radar and Acoustic Echo Sounders , 1974 .

[11]  W. Hocking.  Angular and temporal characteristics of partial reflections from the D‐region of the ionosphere , 1979 .

[12]  G. Schmidt,et al.  High-Resolution VHF Radar Sounding of the Troposphere and Stratosphere , 1979, IEEE Transactions on Geoscience Electronics.

[13]  J H Brown,et al.  Radar and optical measurements of C2n. , 1982, Applied optics.

[14]  David C. Fritts,et al.  Gravity wave saturation in the middle atmosphere: A review of theory and observations , 1984 .

[15]  K. Browning,et al.  Measurements of Air Motion in Regions of Clear Air Turbulence using High-power Doppler Radar , 1972, Nature.

[16]  Susumu Kato,et al.  Radio wave scattering from the tropical mesosphere observed with the Jicamarca radar , 1980 .

[17]  H. Booker,et al.  A Theory of Radio Scattering in the Troposphere , 1950, Proceedings of the IRE.

[18]  Jürgen Röttger,et al.  Partial reflection and scattering of VHF radar signals from the clear atmosphere , 1978 .

[19]  Wayne K. Hocking,et al.  On the extraction of atmospheric turbulence parameters from radar backscatter Doppler spectra—I. Theory , 1983 .

[20]  J. Weinstock.  Using radar to estimate dissipation rates in thin layers of turbulence , 1981 .

[21]  K. Budden.  Effect of electron collisions on formulas of magneto-ionic theory , 1965 .

[22]  H. Óttersten,et al.  Radar Backscattering from the Turbulent Clear Atmosphere , 1969 .

[23]  Toru Sato,et al.  Fine Altitude Resolution Observations of Stratospheric Turbulent Layers by the Arecibo 430 MHz Radar , 1982 .

[24]  J. Weinstock,et al.  Vertical Turbulent Diffusion in a Stably Stratified Fluid , 1978 .

[25]  W. Hocking,et al.  Comparative observations of D region HF partial reflections at 2 and 6 MHz , 1982 .

[26]  K. Wakasugi,et al.  Radar measurement of short-period atmospheric waves and related scattering properties at the altitude of 13–25 km over Jicamarca , 1980 .

[27]  Peter Czechowsky,et al.  Variations of Mesospheric Structures in Different Seasons , 1979 .

[28]  J. Röttger.  Structure and dynamics of the stratosphere and mesosphere revealed by VHF radar investigations , 1980 .

[29]  K. S. Gage,et al.  Vertical profiles of refractivity turbulence structure constant: Comparison of observations by the Sunset Radar with a new theoretical model , 1978 .

[30]  H. Staras.  Scattering of Electromagnetic Energy in a Randomly Inhomogeneous Atmosphere , 1952 .

[31]  A. Bohne.  Radar Detection of Turbulence in Precipitation Environments. , 1982 .

[32]  T. L. Clark,et al.  The evolution of finite amplitude kelvin-helmholtz billows , 1978 .

[33]  W. Gordon,et al.  A review of radar studies of the middle atmosphere , 1980 .

[34]  S. Clifford,et al.  Modified spectrum of atmospheric temperature fluctuations and its application to optical propagation , 1978 .

[35]  B. B. Balsley,et al.  On the scattering and reflection mechanisms contributing to clear air radar echoes from the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesophere , 1980 .

[36]  J. Röttger.  Reflection and scattering of VHF radar signals from atmospheric refractivity structures , 1980 .

[37]  W. Hocking.  Mesospheric turbulence intensities measured with a HF radar at 35°S - II , 1983 .

[38]  J. Weinstock.  On the Theory of Turbulence in the Buoyancy Subrange of Stably Stratified Flows , 1978 .

[39]  K. S. Gage,et al.  Use of Doppler radar for the measurement of atmospheric turbulence parameters from the intensity of clear‐air echoes , 1980 .

[40]  S. Bowhill,et al.  Scattering of radio waves from the mesosphere—I. Theory and observations , 1976 .

[41]  H. Tennekes.  Intermittency of the small-scale structure of atmospheric turbulence , 1973 .

[42]  P. W. Sloss,et al.  Wind Shear and Reflectivity Gradient Effects on Doppler Radar Spectra , 1968 .

[43]  J. Röttger.  The dynamics of stratospheric and mesospheric fine structure investigated with an MST VHF radar , 1981 .

[44]  Jean Barat,et al.  Some Characteristics of Clear-Air Turbulence in the Middle Stratosphere , 1982 .

[45]  R. C. Srivastava,et al.  Wind Shear and Reflectivity Gradient Effects on Doppler Radar Spectra: II. , 1969 .

[46]  J. Hall,et al.  D-REGION ELECTRON DENSITIES AND COLLISION FREQUENCIES FROM FARADAY ROTATION AND DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION MEASUREMENTS. , 1972 .

[47]  Robert K. Crane,et al.  A review of radar observations of turbulence in the lower stratosphere , 1980 .

[48]  J. Röttger.  Investigations of lower and middle atmosphere dynamics with spaced antenna drifts radars , 1981 .

[49]  K. S. Gage,et al.  Evidence for specular reflection from monostatic VHF radar observations of the stratosphere , 1978 .