Solar photocatalysis: Materials, reactors, some commercial, and pre-industrialized applications. A comprehensive approach

Abstract In the future, solar energy, along with other renewable resources, could play a key role in mass production of fine chemicals. It could also potentially solve environmental problems, as demonstrated by recent developments in the use of solar energy, such as solar photocatalysis. The solar photocatalytic technology has been demonstrated to be effective for: • Treating groundwater, drinking water, industrial wastewater, and air and soil pollution, • Water disinfection, and • Industrial production of fine chemicals. This report summarizes the current status of solar photocatalysis and identifies future opportunities for research and industry in this field, including recent relevant bibliography. The main commercial solar photocatalytic applications are described, included the technologies based on sunlight for antifogging and self-cleaning of coating materials, glass, and concrete. An overview of several different solar photoreactors and the main operating process parameters are also provided. For the estimation of capital costs, it is suggested the use of appropriate “figures of merit”. The present review would be of interest for researchers, technologists, engineers, and industrialists.

[1]  L. Oliveira,et al.  Green photochemistry: solar-chemical synthesis of Juglone with medium concentrated sunlight , 2006 .

[2]  P. Kamat,et al.  Environmentally benign photocatalysts : applications of titanium oxide-based materials , 2010 .

[3]  Masaaki Kitano,et al.  Recent developments in titanium oxide-based photocatalysts , 2007 .

[4]  D. Bahnemann,et al.  Large scale studies in solar catalytic wastewater treatment , 1999 .

[5]  S. Martin,et al.  Environmental Applications of Semiconductor Photocatalysis , 1995 .

[6]  Nicolas Keller,et al.  Ethylene removal and fresh product storage: a challenge at the frontiers of chemistry. Toward an approach by photocatalytic oxidation. , 2013, Chemical reviews.

[7]  M. S. Hegde,et al.  Synthesis and structure of nanocrystalline TiO2 with lower band gap showing high photocatalytic activity. , 2004, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[8]  Davide Ravelli,et al.  Solar light-driven photocatalyzed alkylations. Chemistry on the window ledge. , 2009, Chemical communications.

[9]  Agnieszka Podstawczyńska,et al.  UV and global solar radiation in Łódź, Central Poland , 2009 .

[10]  M. I. Maldonado,et al.  Evaluation of operational parameters involved in solar photo-Fenton degradation of a commercial pesticide mixture , 2009 .

[11]  N. Serpone,et al.  Photocatalysis: Fundamentals and Applications , 1989 .

[12]  M. I. Maldonado,et al.  Solar photochemical treatment of winery wastewater in a CPC reactor. , 2009, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[13]  D. Bahnemann,et al.  Enhancement of the photocatalytic activity of various TiO2 materials by platinisation , 2002 .

[14]  S. Nair,et al.  Photocatalytic Water Treatment by Titanium Dioxide: Recent Updates , 2012 .

[15]  J. Raulin,et al.  Heterogeneous photocatalysis: state of the art and present applications In honor of Pr. R.L. Burwell Jr. (1912–2003), Former Head of Ipatieff Laboratories, Northwestern University, Evanston (Ill). , 2005 .

[16]  Sixto Malato,et al.  The photo-fenton reaction and the TiO2/UV process for waste water treatment − novel developments , 1999 .

[17]  Ivan P. Parkin,et al.  Self-cleaning coatings , 2005 .

[18]  B. Pohlmann,et al.  Photochemical production of fine chemicals with concentrated sunlight , 1997 .

[19]  V. Parmon,et al.  Glossary of terms used in photocatalysis and radiation catalysis (IUPAC Recommendations 2011) , 2011 .

[20]  Ulrich Platt,et al.  Primary and Secondary Glyoxal Formation from Aromatics: Experimental Evidence for the Bicycloalkyl−Radical Pathway from Benzene, Toluene, and p-Xylene , 2001 .

[21]  M. DeRosa.  Photosensitized singlet oxygen and its applications , 2002 .

[22]  M. Anpo,et al.  Photocatalysis for new energy production: Recent advances in photocatalytic water splitting reactions for hydrogen production , 2007 .

[23]  Montaser Y. Ghaly,et al.  Advanced oxidation processes for the removal of organophosphorus pesticides from wastewater , 2006 .

[24]  J. Blanco,et al.  Applicability of the Photo-Fenton method for treating water containing pesticides , 1999 .

[25]  A. M. Amat,et al.  Treatment of Aqueous Solutions Containing Four Commercial Pesticides by Means of TiO2 Solar Photocatalysis , 2008 .

[26]  C. Turchi,et al.  Field testing solar photocatalytic detoxification on TCE-contaminated groundwater , 1993 .

[27]  Liejin Guo,et al.  Efficient solar hydrogen production by photocatalytic water splitting: From fundamental study to pilot demonstration , 2010 .

[28]  R. L. Pozzo,et al.  Radiation extinction of slurried TiO2 as a function of mechanical action and ionic composition of the suspending media: a key factor in the photocatalytic efficiency , 2002 .

[29]  A. Fujishima,et al.  TiO2 photocatalysis and related surface phenomena , 2008 .

[30]  C. Langford,et al.  Variation of Langmuir adsorption constant determined for TiO2-photocatalyzed degradation of acetophenone under different light intensity , 2000 .

[31]  A. Cassano,et al.  Photocatalytic intrinsic reaction kinetics. II: Effects of oxygen concentration on the kinetics of the photocatalytic degradation of dichloroacetic acid , 2005 .

[32]  M. Fagnoni,et al.  The sunny side of chemistry: green synthesis by solar light , 2009, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[33]  Akira Fujishima,et al.  Titanium dioxide photocatalysis , 2000 .

[34]  Alexander G. Agrios,et al.  Recombination rate of photogenerated charges versus surface area: Opposing effects of TiO2 sintering temperature on photocatalytic removal of phenol, anisole, and pyridine in water , 2006 .

[35]  E. Borowiak‐Palen,et al.  Synthesis, characterization, and photocatalytic properties of core/shell mesoporous silica nanospheres supporting nanocrystalline titania , 2011 .

[36]  C. Saint,et al.  Recent developments in photocatalytic water treatment technology: a review. , 2010, Water research.

[37]  Julián Blanco,et al.  Decontamination and disinfection of water by solar photocatalysis: Recent overview and trends , 2009 .

[38]  J. Verran,et al.  Degradation and stabilisation of polymers and coatings: nano versus pigmentary titania particles , 2004 .

[39]  U. H. Jakobsen,et al.  Engineering Photocatalytic Cements: Understanding TiO2 Surface Chemistry to Control and Modulate Photocatalytic Performances , 2010 .

[40]  R. Andreozzi,et al.  Kinetic modeling of benzyl alcohol and/or benzaldehyde selective oxidation in water by means of TiO2/CuII/hν process , 2012 .

[41]  V. Goetz,et al.  A Model for Solar Photocatalytic Mineralization , 2011 .

[42]  Krishnan Rajeshwar,et al.  Heterogeneous photocatalytic treatment of organic dyes in air and aqueous media , 2008 .

[43]  Viorel Badescu,et al.  Weather Modeling and Forecasting of PV Systems Operation , 2012 .

[44]  Francesc Torrades,et al.  Experimental design of Fenton and photo-Fenton reactions for the treatment of cellulose bleaching effluents. , 2003, Chemosphere.

[45]  J. Laîné,et al.  Effect of oxygen in a thin-film rotating disk photocatalytic reactor. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[46]  Shuxin Ouyang,et al.  Nano‐photocatalytic Materials: Possibilities and Challenges , 2012, Advanced materials.

[47]  H. D. Roth.  The Beginnings of Organic Photochemistry , 1989 .

[48]  Dionissios Mantzavinos,et al.  Effect of key operating parameters on phenols degradation during H2O2-assisted TiO2 photocatalytic treatment of simulated and actual olive mill wastewaters , 2007 .

[49]  M. Zorn,et al.  Catalytic and Photocatalytic Oxidation of Ethylene on Titania-Based Thin-Films , 2000 .

[50]  J. Byrne,et al.  Elimination of water pathogens with solar radiation using an automated sequential batch CPC reactor. , 2011, Journal of hazardous materials.

[51]  J. Verran,et al.  PHOTOCATALYTIC TITANIA BASED SURFACES: ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS , 2008 .

[52]  Chunli Bai,et al.  Ascent of Nanoscience in China , 2005, Science.

[53]  I. Parkin,et al.  Characterisation of the photocatalyst Pilkington Activ (TM): a reference film photocatalyst? , 2003 .

[54]  J. Yates,et al.  Photocatalysis on TiO2 Surfaces: Principles, Mechanisms, and Selected Results , 1995 .

[55]  I. Oller,et al.  Decontamination of industrial wastewater containing pesticides by combining large-scale homogeneous solar photocatalysis and biological treatment , 2010 .

[56]  I. Dincer.  Renewable energy and sustainable development: a crucial review , 2000 .

[57]  G. Horneck,et al.  IMMOBILIZED PHOTOSENSITIZERS FOR SOLAR PHOTOCHEMICAL APPLICATIONS , 1999 .

[58]  T. Albanis,et al.  TiO2-assisted photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes in aqueous solution: kinetic and mechanistic investigations A review , 2004 .

[59]  J. Silverstein,et al.  Effects of soluble ferri-hydroxide complexes on microbial neutralization of acid mine drainage. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[60]  D. Dondi,et al.  Synthesis of γ-lactols, γ-lactones and 1,4-monoprotected succinaldehydes under moderately concentrated sunlight , 2009 .

[61]  Choon‐Hong Tan,et al.  Dehydrogenative coupling reactions catalysed by Rose Bengal using visible light irradiation , 2011 .

[62]  J. Albarelli,et al.  Sensitizer immobilization in photochemistry: evaluation of a novel green support , 2009 .

[63]  Hiroshi Oosaki,et al.  Development of hydrophilic outside mirror coated with titania photocatalyst , 2000 .

[64]  Jiaguo Yu,et al.  Development of multifunctional photoactive self-cleaning glasses , 2008 .

[65]  C. Navntoft,et al.  Investigating the microbial inactivation efficiency of a 25 L batch solar disinfection (SODIS) reactor enhanced with a compound parabolic collector (CPC) for household use , 2010 .

[66]  J. Giménez,et al.  Photocatalytic treatment of phenol and 2,4-dichlorophenol in a solar plant in the way to scaling-up , 1999 .

[67]  U. Baier,et al.  Enhanced anaerobic degradation of mechanically disintegrated sludge , 1997 .

[68]  John A. Byrne,et al.  Solar photocatalytic disinfection of water with immobilised titanium dioxide in re-circulating flow CPC reactors , 2012 .

[69]  L. Palmisano,et al.  Sunlight-induced functionalisation reactions of heteroaromatic bases with aldehydes in the presence of TiO2: A hypothesis on the mechanism , 2007 .

[70]  Ruben Kretzschmar,et al.  Competitive sorption of copper and lead at the oxide-water interface: Implications for surface site density , 1999 .

[71]  E. Bandala,et al.  Photocatalytic decolourisation of synthetic and real textile wastewater containing benzidine-based azo dyes , 2008 .

[72]  María P. Utrillas,et al.  Ratio of UV to global broad band irradiation in Valencia, Spain , 1999 .

[73]  J. Herrmann,et al.  PHOTOCATALYTIC DEGRADATION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF DYES (ALIZARIN S, CROCEIN ORANGE G, METHYL RED, CONGO RED, METHYLENE BLUE) IN WATER BY UV-IRRADIATED TITANIA , 2002 .

[74]  A. Fujishima,et al.  Photogeneration of Highly Amphiphilic TiO2 Surfaces , 1998 .

[75]  Joseph Appelbaum,et al.  Optimal Solar Field Design of Stationary Collectors , 2004 .

[76]  Sixto Malato,et al.  Photo-Fenton treatment of water containing natural phenolic pollutants. , 2003, Chemosphere.

[77]  A. Fujishima,et al.  Electrochemical Photolysis of Water at a Semiconductor Electrode , 1972, Nature.

[78]  Nele De Belie,et al.  Titanium dioxide coated cementitious materials for air purifying purposes: Preparation, characterization and toluene removal potential , 2010 .

[79]  V. Vilar,et al.  Sanitary landfill leachate treatment using combined solar photo-Fenton and biological oxidation processes at pre-industrial scale , 2013 .

[80]  N. Enteria,et al.  Solar energy sciences and engineering applications , 2013 .

[81]  James R. Bolton,et al.  Figures-of-merit for the technical development and application of advanced oxidation technologies for both electric- and solar-driven systems (IUPAC Technical Report) , 2001 .

[82]  T. Waite,et al.  Evaluation of two solar pilot scale fixed-bed photocatalytic reactors , 2000 .

[83]  A. Reller,et al.  Photoinduced reactivity of titanium dioxide , 2004 .

[84]  J. Blanco,et al.  Solar driven degradation of 4-chlorophenol , 1999 .

[85]  A. Fujishima,et al.  TiO2 Photocatalysis: A Historical Overview and Future Prospects , 2005 .

[86]  M. I. Maldonado,et al.  Coupling solar photo-Fenton and biotreatment at industrial scale: main results of a demonstration plant. , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[87]  J. Weber,et al.  Influence of pH and chloride anion on the photocatalytic degradation of organic compounds , 2001 .

[88]  C. Estrada,et al.  Comparison of Solar Collection Geometries for Application to Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Contaminants , 2007 .

[89]  M. Igawa,et al.  High frequency and large deposition of acid fog on high elevation forest. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[90]  M. I. Maldonado,et al.  Pilot plant scale reactive dyes degradation by solar photo-Fenton and biological processes , 2008 .

[91]  E. Coyle,et al.  Green photochemistry: solarchemical synthesis of 5-amido-1,4-naphthoquinones , 2009 .

[92]  Aniruddha B. Pandit,et al.  Sonophotocatalytic reactors for wastewater treatment: A critical review , 2004 .

[93]  J. Farinha Mendes,et al.  Engineering of solar photocatalytic collectors , 2004 .

[94]  C. Nascimento,et al.  Photo-Fenton degradation of wastewater containing organic compounds in solar reactors , 2004 .

[95]  I. Oller,et al.  Solar photo-Fenton optimization for the treatment of MWTP effluents containing emerging contaminants , 2013 .

[96]  A. Itoh,et al.  Facile solar oxidation of alcohols with molecular oxygen , 2005 .

[97]  J. Vytřasová,et al.  Photocatalytic and antimicrobial effects of interior paints , 2010 .

[98]  M. Demuth,et al.  An asymmetric induction principle and biomimetics with photons via electron transfer , 1998 .

[99]  C. Navntoft,et al.  Solar disinfection of drinking water (SODIS): an investigation of the effect of UV-A dose on inactivation efficiency , 2009, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[100]  Jeyong Yoon,et al.  CHARACTERISTICS OF P-CHLOROPHENOL OXIDATION BY FENTON'S REAGENT , 1999 .

[101]  J. Kiwi,et al.  Synthesis, activity and characterization of textiles showing self-cleaning activity under daylight irradiation , 2007 .

[102]  M. I. Maldonado,et al.  Pre-industrial-scale combined solar photo-fenton and immobilized biomass activated-sludge biotreatment , 2007 .

[103]  M. I. Maldonado,et al.  Photocatalytic degradation of emerging contaminants in municipal wastewater treatment plant effluents using immobilized TiO2 in a solar pilot plant , 2011 .

[104]  Sen Guo,et al.  TiO2-based building materials: Above and beyond traditional applications , 2009 .

[105]  C. Richter,et al.  Solar light induced carbon–carbon bond formation via TiO2 photocatalysis , 1998 .

[106]  Christian Sattler,et al.  Solar collectors versus lamps—a comparison of the energy demand of industrial photochemical processes as exemplified by the production of ε-caprolactam , 1999 .

[107]  Chi Sun Poon,et al.  Photocatalytic construction and building materials: From fundamentals to applications , 2009 .

[108]  W. Gernjak,et al.  Solar photocatalytic degradation of some hazardous water-soluble pesticides at pilot-plant scale. , 2006, Journal of hazardous materials.

[109]  J. Ryu,et al.  Substrate-specific photocatalytic activities of TiO2 and multiactivity test for water treatment application. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[110]  Robert S. H. Liu,et al.  Designing systems for one-way trans to cis photoisomerization for solar reactions , 2009 .

[111]  Alberto E. Cassano,et al.  Cylindrical photocatalytic reactors. Radiation absorption and scattering effects produced by suspended fine particles in an annular space , 1997 .

[112]  A. Ibhadon,et al.  Heterogeneous Photocatalysis: Recent Advances and Applications , 2013 .

[113]  P. Wincker,et al.  Influence of Wolbachia on host gene expression in an obligatory symbiosis , 2012, BMC Microbiology.

[114]  Christian Jung,et al.  PROPHIS: parabolic trough-facility for organic photochemical syntheses in sunlight. , 2005, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[115]  Eduardo Zarza,et al.  Parabolic-trough solar collectors and their applications , 2010 .

[116]  M. Lucas,et al.  Decolorization of the azo dye Reactive Black 5 by Fenton and photo-Fenton oxidation , 2006 .

[117]  B. Heller,et al.  A solar-driven, complex catalyzed pyridine synthesis as alternative for a thermally-driven synthesis , 1997 .

[118]  F. .. Nieves,et al.  Relationship between TiO2 particle size and reactor diameter in solar photoreactors efficiency , 1999 .

[119]  A H Geeraerd,et al.  GInaFiT, a freeware tool to assess non-log-linear microbial survivor curves. , 2005, International journal of food microbiology.

[120]  H. Lasa,et al.  Photocatalytic Degradation of Water Organic Pollutants. Kinetic Modeling and Energy Efficiency , 1997 .

[121]  Julián Blanco,et al.  Large solar plant photocatalytic water decontamination : degradation of pentachlorophenol , 1993 .

[122]  G. Camera-Roda,et al.  Optimization of the thickness of a photocatalytic film on the basis of the effectiveness factor , 2007 .

[123]  Robert S. H. Liu,et al.  Solar reactions for preparing hindered 7-cis-isomers of dienes and trienes in the vitamin A series , 2008 .

[124]  M. Anderson,et al.  Photocatalytic degradation of ethylene over thin films of titania supported on glass rings , 1999 .

[125]  J. I. Ajona,et al.  The use of CPC collectors for detoxification of contaminated water: Design, construction and preliminary results , 2000 .

[126]  M. Hoffmann,et al.  Oxidative Power of Nitrogen-Doped TiO2 Photocatalysts under Visible Illumination , 2004 .

[127]  Detlef W. Bahnemann,et al.  Photocatalytic water treatment: solar energy applications , 2004 .

[128]  J. Blanco,et al.  Comparison of various titania samples of industrial origin in the solar photocatalytic detoxification of water containing 4-chlorophenol , 1999 .

[129]  J. Giménez,et al.  Low-concentrating CPC collectors for photocatalytic water detoxification: Comparison with a medium concentrating solar collector , 1997 .

[130]  R. Andreozzi,et al.  TiO2/Cu(II) photocatalytic production of benzaldehyde from benzyl alcohol in solar pilot plant reactor , 2013 .

[131]  H. Lasa,et al.  Photo-catalytic degradation of air borne pollutants apparent quantum efficiencies in a novel photo-CREC-air reactor , 2003 .

[132]  A. Mills,et al.  A web-based overview of semiconductor photochemistry-based current commercial applications , 2002 .

[133]  Kendric C. Smith.  The Science of Photobiology , 1989, Springer US.

[134]  J. Rokach,et al.  Photoamidation. III.1 The Light-Induced Amidation of Nonterminal Olefins , 1965 .

[135]  Abdul Halim Abdullah,et al.  Heterogeneous photocatalytic degradation of organic contaminants over titanium dioxide : A review of fundamentals, progress and problems , 2008 .

[136]  Günther,et al.  Die Synthese des Ascaridols , 1944, Naturwissenschaften.

[137]  V. Tuchin,et al.  Titania nanofibers in gypsum composites: an antibacterial and cytotoxicology study. , 2014, Journal of materials chemistry. B.

[138]  H. Engqvist,et al.  Photocatalytic and antimicrobial properties of surgical implant coatings of titanium dioxide deposited though cathodic arc evaporation , 2012, Biotechnology Letters.

[139]  Francois Olive,et al.  TiO2-containing cement pastes and mortars: Measurements of the photocatalytic efficiency using a rhodamine B-based colourimetric test , 2009 .

[140]  D. A. Palmer,et al.  Potentiometric Titrations of Rutile Suspensions to 250°C☆ , 1998 .

[141]  N. Hoffmann,et al.  Photochemical reactions as key steps in organic synthesis. , 2008, Chemical reviews.

[142]  George A. Parks,et al.  The Isoelectric Points of Solid Oxides, Solid Hydroxides, and Aqueous Hydroxo Complex Systems , 1965 .

[143]  J. Dewulf,et al.  Heterogeneous Photocatalysis as an Advanced Oxidation Process for the Abatement of Chlorinated, Monocyclic Aromatic and Sulfurous Volatile Organic Compounds in Air: State of the Art , 2007 .

[144]  J. Nuzillard,et al.  Origin of chiral induction in radical reactions with the diastereoisomers (5R)- and (5S)-5-l-menthyloxyfuran-2[5H]-one. , 2004, The Journal of organic chemistry.

[145]  G. Ciamician,et al.  THE PHOTOCHEMISTRY OF THE FUTURE. , 1912, Science.

[146]  E. Oliveros,et al.  Advanced Oxidation Processes for Organic Contaminant Destruction Based on the Fenton Reaction and Related Chemistry , 2006 .

[147]  L. Bousselmi,et al.  Solar photocatalytic degradation of commercial textile azo dyes: Performance of pilot plant scale thin film fixed-bed reactor , 2009 .

[148]  C. Tso,et al.  Stability of metal oxide nanoparticles in aqueous solutions. , 2010, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[149]  G. Bolte.  Innovative Building Material – Reduction of Air Pollution through TioCem ® , 2009 .

[150]  Marwa M. Hassan,et al.  Effects of Roadway Contaminants on Titanium Dioxide Photodegradation of Nitrogen Oxides , 2011 .

[151]  P. Pichat.  Photocatalysis and water purification : from fundamentals to recent applications , 2013 .

[152]  J. Verran,et al.  Photocatalytic Coatings for Environmental Applications† , 2005, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[153]  M. I. Maldonado,et al.  Solar efficiency of a new deposited titania photocatalyst: chlorophenol, pesticide and dye removal applications , 2003 .

[154]  Alberto E. Cassano,et al.  Photocatalysis in water environments using artificial and solar light , 2000 .

[155]  Tamer T. El-Idreesy,et al.  Photooxygenation in polymer matrices: En route to highly active antimalarial peroxides , 2005 .

[156]  M. Tomaszewska,et al.  Photocatalytic degradation of azo-dye Acid Red 18 , 2005 .

[157]  André M. Braun,et al.  Photochemical processes for water treatment , 1993 .

[158]  Louay N. Mohammad,et al.  Evaluation of the durability of titanium dioxide photocatalyst coating for concrete pavement , 2010 .

[159]  Detlef W. Bahnemann,et al.  Solar water treatment: principles and reactors , 1997 .

[160]  S. Esplugas,et al.  Photocatalytic degradation of oxytetracycline using TiO2 under natural and simulated solar radiation , 2011 .

[161]  J. Mattay,et al.  Green photochemistry: solar photooxygenations with medium concentrated sunlight , 2005 .

[162]  S. Kenfack,et al.  An innovative coupled solar-biological system at field pilot scale for the treatment of biorecalcitrant pollutants , 2003 .

[163]  J. Blanco,et al.  New large solar photocatalytic plant: set-up and preliminary results. , 2002, Chemosphere.

[164]  W. Gernjak,et al.  Treatment of chlorinated solvents by TiO2 photocatalysis and photo-Fenton: influence of operating conditions in a solar pilot plant. , 2005, Chemosphere.

[165]  R. Andreozzi,et al.  Fe(III) homogeneous photocatalysis for the removal of 1,2-dichlorobenzene in aqueous solution by means UV lamp and solar light. , 2006, Water research.

[166]  Sixto Malato,et al.  Pilot-plant treatment of olive mill wastewater (OMW) by solar TiO2 photocatalysis and solar photo-Fenton , 2004 .

[167]  M. A. Ischay,et al.  Efficient visible light photocatalysis of [2+2] enone cycloadditions. , 2008, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[168]  Sixto Malato,et al.  Optimizing the solar photo-Fenton process in the treatment of contaminated water. Determination of intrinsic kinetic constants for scale-up , 2005 .

[169]  A. Wright,et al.  Molecular analysis of methanogenic archaea in the forestomach of the alpaca (Vicugna pacos) , 2012, BMC Microbiology.

[170]  Andrew T. Harris,et al.  Review of Major Design and Scale-up Considerations for Solar Photocatalytic Reactors , 2009 .

[171]  Kiril Hristovski,et al.  Stability of commercial metal oxide nanoparticles in water. , 2008, Water research.

[172]  D. J. Alpert,et al.  Sandia National Laboratories' work in solar detoxification of hazardous wastes , 1991 .

[173]  L Bousselmi,et al.  Textile wastewater treatment and reuse by solar catalysis: results from a pilot plant in Tunisia. , 2004, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[174]  M. Machida,et al.  Antibacterial Activity of Photocatalytic Titanium Dioxide Thin Films with Photodeposited Silver on the Surface of Sanitary Ware , 2004 .

[175]  Akira Fujishima,et al.  TITANIUM DIOXIDE PHOTOCATALYSIS: PRESENT SITUATION AND FUTURE APPROACHES , 2006 .

[176]  G. Mailhot,et al.  Fe(III)-solar light induced degradation of diethyl phthalate (DEP) in aqueous solutions. , 2002, Chemosphere.

[177]  E. Borrás,et al.  SOA formation in a photoreactor from a mixture of organic gases and HONO for different experimental conditions , 2011 .

[178]  Christian Sattler,et al.  Compound parabolic concentrator technology development to commercial solar detoxification applications , 1999 .

[179]  J. Blanco,et al.  TiO2-based solar photocatalytic detoxification of water containing organic pollutants. Case studies of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyaceticacid (2,4-D) and of benzofuran , 1998 .

[180]  F. Beltrán,et al.  Oxidation of p-hydroxybenzoic acid by Fenton's reagent. , 2001, Water research.

[181]  G. Schenck.  Probleme präparativer Photochemie , 1952 .

[182]  Bimleshwar P. Gupta,et al.  Solar detoxification of hazardous waste : an overview of the U.S. Department of Energy program , 1991 .

[183]  J. Blanco,et al.  Water disinfection by solar photocatalysis using compound parabolic collectors , 2005 .

[184]  Luigi Cassar,et al.  Photocatalysis of Cementitious Materials: Clean Buildings and Clean Air , 2004 .

[185]  A. Fernández-Alba,et al.  Degradation of imidacloprid in water by photo-Fenton and TiO2 photocatalysis at a solar pilot plant: a comparative study. , 2001, Environmental science & technology.

[186]  K. Takehira,et al.  Photocatalytic Oxidation of Alkanes with Dioxygen by Visible Light and Copper(II) and Iron(III) Chlorides: Preference Oxidation of Alkanes over Alcohols and Ketones , 2004 .

[187]  J. Mattay,et al.  Green photochemistry: the solar-chemical ‘Photo–Friedel–Crafts acylation’ of quinones , 2001 .

[188]  C. Sichel,et al.  Effect of UV solar intensity and dose on the photocatalytic disinfection of bacteria and fungi , 2007 .

[189]  J. Benites,et al.  The solar-chemical photo-Friedel–Crafts heteroacylation of 1,4-quinones , 2011 .

[190]  Stefan H. Bossmann,et al.  New Evidence against Hydroxyl Radicals as Reactive Intermediates in the Thermal and Photochemically Enhanced Fenton Reactions , 1998 .

[191]  P. D. Mayo,et al.  Surface photochemistry: cadmium sulfide photoinduced cis-trans isomerization of olefins , 1985 .

[192]  Kuo-Hua Wang,et al.  Photocatalytic degradation of 2-chloro and 2-nitrophenol by titanium dioxide suspensions in aqueous solution , 1999 .

[193]  C. Gopinath,et al.  Porosity driven photocatalytic activity of wormhole mesoporous TiO2-xNx in direct sunlight , 2011 .

[194]  K. Sumathy,et al.  A review and recent developments in photocatalytic water-splitting using TiO2 for hydrogen production , 2007 .

[195]  A. Cassano,et al.  ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING COEFFICIENTS OF TITANIUM DIOXIDE PARTICULATE SUSPENSIONS IN WATER , 1996 .

[196]  D. Bahnemann.  Current challenges in photocatalysis: Improved photocatalysts and appropriate photoreactor engineering , 2000 .

[197]  W. Jenks,et al.  Effects of sintering of TiO2 particles on the mechanisms of photocatalytic degradation of organic molecules in water , 2008 .

[198]  M. Ritala,et al.  Antifouling properties of TiO2: Photocatalytic decomposition and adhesion of fatty and rosin acids, sterols and lipophilic wood extractives , 2006 .

[199]  Xiaobo Chen,et al.  Titanium dioxide nanomaterials: synthesis, properties, modifications, and applications. , 2007, Chemical reviews.

[200]  A. K. Ray,et al.  Effect of mass transfer and catalyst layer thickness on photocatalytic reaction , 2000 .

[201]  Alberto E. Cassano,et al.  Reaction engineering of suspended solid heterogeneous photocatalytic reactors , 2000 .

[202]  Julián Blanco,et al.  Photocatalysis with solar energy at a pilot-plant scale: an overview , 2002 .

[203]  L. Palmisano,et al.  Sunlight-induced reactions of some heterocyclic bases with ethers in the presence of TiO2: A green route for the synthesis of heterocyclic aldehydes , 2005 .

[204]  I. Poulios,et al.  Solar photocatalytic treatment of synthetic municipal wastewater. , 2004, Water research.

[205]  E. Darakas,et al.  Photocatalytic oxidation of Cibacron Yellow LS-R. , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[206]  R. Marotta,et al.  Production of 5-hydroxy-4-keto-2-pentenoic acid by photo-oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural with singlet oxygen: A kinetic investigation , 2010 .

[207]  M. McGuire,et al.  Synthesis of .beta.-lactams by the photolytic reaction of chromium carbene complexes with imines , 1982 .

[208]  G. Mailhot,et al.  Comparative kinetic study of atrazine photodegradation in aqueous Fe(ClO4)3 solutions and TiO2 suspensions , 2003 .

[209]  Danzhen Li,et al.  New synthesis of excellent visible-light TiO2−xNx photocatalyst using a very simple method , 2007 .

[210]  C. Baiocchi,et al.  Azo-dyes photocatalytic degradation in aqueous suspension of TiO2 under solar irradiation. , 2002, Chemosphere.

[211]  M. Tsezos,et al.  Photolytic and photocatalytic alterations of humic substances in UV (254 nm) and Solar Cocentric Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) reactors. , 2009 .

[212]  M. Bohn,et al.  Development of solar detoxification technology in the USA - an introduction , 1991 .

[213]  Nathalie Monnerie,et al.  Economic Evaluation of the Industrial Photosynthesis of Rose Oxide via Lamp or Solar Operated Photooxidation of Citronellol , 2001 .

[214]  N. Geraghty,et al.  A comparative analysis of the functionalisation of unactivated cycloalkanes using alkynes and either sunlight or a photochemical reactor , 2005 .

[215]  F. Pacheco-Torgal,et al.  Nanotechnology: Advantages and drawbacks in the field of construction and building materials , 2011 .

[216]  Meng Chen,et al.  NOx removal from vehicle emissions by functionality surface of asphalt road. , 2010, Journal of hazardous materials.