A review of emerging technologies for remediation of PFASs

Correspondence Ian Ross, Arcadis, 34 York Way, London N1 9AB, U.K. Email: ian.ross@arcadis.com Abstract The need for remediation of polyand perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) is growing as a result of more regulatory attention to this new class of contaminants with diminishing water quality standards being promulgated, commonly in the parts per trillion range. PFASs comprise >3,000 individual compounds, but the focus of analyses and regulations has generally been PFASs termed perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), which are all extremely persistent, can be highly mobile, and are increasingly being reported to bioaccumulate, with understanding of their toxicology evolving. However, there are thousands of polyfluorinated “PFAA precursors”, which can transform in the environment and in higher organisms to create PFAAs as persistent daughter products.

[1]  Gang Yu,et al.  Highly efficient sorption of perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoate on a quaternized cotton prepared by atom transfer radical polymerization , 2012 .

[2]  Gang Yu,et al.  Destruction of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) by ball milling. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[3]  M. Reinhard,et al.  Novel perspectives on the bioaccumulation of PFCs--the concentration dependency. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[4]  Zunyao Wang,et al.  Laccase-Catalyzed Degradation of Perfluorooctanoic Acid , 2015 .

[5]  V. Ochoa-Herrera,et al.  Microbial toxicity and biodegradability of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and shorter chain perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). , 2016, Environmental science. Processes & impacts.

[6]  B. Mader,et al.  Reductive defluorination of aqueous perfluorinated alkyl surfactants: effects of ionic headgroup and chain length. , 2009, The journal of physical chemistry. A.

[7]  William R. Dichtel,et al.  β-Cyclodextrin Polymer Network Sequesters Perfluorooctanoic Acid at Environmentally Relevant Concentrations. , 2017, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[8]  P. Deymier,et al.  Treatment of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) using a large-scale sonochemical reactor , 2018 .

[9]  Charles S Wong,et al.  Enantiospecific perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) analysis reveals evidence for the source contribution of PFOS-precursors to the Lake Ontario foodweb. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[10]  Mei Sun,et al.  Legacy and Emerging Perfluoroalkyl Substances Are Important Drinking Water Contaminants in the Cape Fear River Watershed of North Carolina , 2016 .

[11]  Shaily Mahendra,et al.  Biotransformation of 6:2 fluorotelomer alcohol (6:2 FTOH) by a wood-rotting fungus. , 2014, Environmental science & technology.

[12]  P. Goldman.  THE ENZYMATIC CLEAVAGE OF THE CARBON-FLUORINE BOND IN FLUOROACETATE. , 1965, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[13]  Imma Ferrer,et al.  Identification of Novel Perfluoroalkyl Ether Carboxylic Acids (PFECAs) and Sulfonic Acids (PFESAs) in Natural Waters Using Accurate Mass Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (TOFMS). , 2015, Environmental science & technology.

[14]  Inmaculada Ortiz,et al.  Pilot scale performance of the electro-oxidation of landfill leachate at boron-doped diamond anodes. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[15]  X. Xia,et al.  A comparative study on sorption of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) by chars, ash and carbon nanotubes. , 2011, Chemosphere.

[16]  G. Gribble.  Naturally Occurring Organofluorines , 2002 .

[17]  Dawen Gao,et al.  A critical review of the application of white rot fungus to environmental pollution control , 2010, Critical reviews in biotechnology.

[18]  Jianguo Liu,et al.  Behavior and mechanisms for sorptive removal of perfluorooctane sulfonate by layered double hydroxides. , 2017, Chemosphere.

[19]  James Franklin,et al.  Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment: Terminology, Classification, and Origins , 2011, Integrated environmental assessment and management.

[20]  K. Kannan,et al.  Comparison of total fluorine, extractable organic fluorine and perfluorinated compounds in the blood of wild and pefluorooctanoate (PFOA)-exposed rats: evidence for the presence of other organofluorine compounds. , 2009, Analytica chimica acta.

[21]  Helian Li,et al.  Intensification of sonochemical degradation of ammonium perfluorooctanoate by persulfate oxidant. , 2014, Ultrasonics sonochemistry.

[22]  P. Visscher,et al.  Summary of research results on bacterial degradation of trifluoroacetate (TFA), October, 1993 - October, 1995 , 1996 .

[23]  G. Buxton,et al.  Critical Review of rate constants for reactions of hydrated electrons, hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl radicals (⋅OH/⋅O− in Aqueous Solution , 1988 .

[24]  V. Kickhoefer,et al.  Bioaugmentation with Vaults: Novel In Situ Remediation Strategy for Transformation of Perfluoroalkyl Compounds , 2016 .

[25]  B. R. Shivakoti,et al.  A comparative study of adsorption of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) onto granular activated carbon, ion-exchange polymers and non-ion-exchange polymers. , 2010, Chemosphere.

[26]  D. Losic,et al.  Sorptive remediation of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) using mixed mineral and graphene/carbon-based materials , 2018 .

[27]  Ning Wang,et al.  Evaluation of PFO formation from the biodegradation of a fluorotelomer-based urethane polymer product in aerobic soils , 2010 .

[28]  K. van Pée,et al.  Biological dehalogenation and halogenation reactions. , 2003, Chemosphere.

[29]  Li Wang,et al.  Electron beam treatment for potable water reuse: Removal of bromate and perfluorooctanoic acid , 2016 .

[30]  Y. Maeda,et al.  Sonochemical decomposition of perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic acid. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[31]  R. Watts,et al.  Degradation of Perfluorooctanoic Acid by Reactive Species Generated through Catalyzed H2O2 Propagation Reactions , 2014 .

[32]  J. Field,et al.  Identification of novel fluorochemicals in aqueous film-forming foams used by the US military. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[33]  Mandu Inyang,et al.  The use of carbon adsorbents for the removal of perfluoroalkyl acids from potable reuse systems. , 2017, Chemosphere.

[34]  Jonathan P Benskin,et al.  Biodegradation of N-ethyl perfluorooctane sulfonamido ethanol (EtFOSE) and EtFOSE-based phosphate diester (SAmPAP diester) in marine sediments. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[35]  Romchat Rattanaoudom,et al.  Removal of Concentrated PFOS and PFOA in Synthetic Industrial Wastewater by Powder Activated Carbon and Hydrotalcite , 2012 .

[36]  Gang Yu,et al.  Removal of perfluorooctane sulfonate from wastewater by anion exchange resins: effects of resin properties and solution chemistry. , 2010, Water research.

[37]  Sierra Rayne,et al.  Perfluoroalkyl sulfonic and carboxylic acids: A critical review of physicochemical properties, levels and patterns in waters and wastewaters, and treatment methods , 2009, Journal of environmental science and health. Part A, Toxic/hazardous substances & environmental engineering.

[38]  Will J. Backe,et al.  Evidence of remediation-induced alteration of subsurface poly- and perfluoroalkyl substance distribution at a former firefighter training area. , 2014, Environmental science & technology.

[39]  David L Sedlak,et al.  Oxidative conversion as a means of detecting precursors to perfluoroalkyl acids in urban runoff. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[40]  Jun Ma,et al.  Kinetics and efficiency of the hydrated electron-induced dehalogenation by the sulfite/UV process. , 2014, Water research.

[41]  V. Wysocki,et al.  Reductive defluorination of perfluorooctane sulfonate. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[42]  Zhanyun Wang,et al.  The precautionary principle and chemicals management: The example of perfluoroalkyl acids in groundwater. , 2016, Environment international.

[43]  Andrea C. Blaine,et al.  Uptake of perfluoroalkyl acids into edible crops via land applied biosolids: field and greenhouse studies. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[44]  L. Colosi,et al.  Peroxidase‐mediated degradation of perfluorooctanoic acid , 2009, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[45]  Ning Wang,et al.  Fluorotelomer alcohol biodegradation-direct evidence that perfluorinated carbon chains breakdown. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[46]  I. Ortiz,et al.  Remediation of wastewaters containing tetrahydrofuran. Study of the electrochemical mineralization on BDD electrodes , 2014 .

[47]  C. Higgins,et al.  Sorption of Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) Relevant to Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF)-Impacted Groundwater by Biochars and Activated Carbon. , 2017, Environmental science & technology.

[48]  Katsuya Yamamoto,et al.  Residual organic fluorinated compounds from thermal treatment of PFOA, PFHxA and PFOS adsorbed onto granular activated carbon (GAC) , 2016 .

[49]  E. Oppelt.  High Voltage Environmental Applications , Inc . Electron Beam Technology Innovative Technology Evaluation Report , 1997 .

[50]  S. Mabury,et al.  Aerobic biodegradation of 2 fluorotelomer sulfonamide–based aqueous film–forming foam components produces perfluoroalkyl carboxylates , 2017, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[51]  Xianming Zhang,et al.  Long-term environmental fate of perfluorinated compounds after accidental release at Toronto airport. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[52]  C. Higgins,et al.  Subsurface transport potential of perfluoroalkyl acids at aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF)-impacted sites. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[53]  P. Visscher,et al.  Summary of research results on bacterial degradation of trifluoroacetate (TFA), November, 1994-May, 1995 , 1995 .

[54]  R. Sierra-Alvarez,et al.  Effect of sound frequency and initial concentration on the sonochemical degradation of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). , 2015, Journal of hazardous materials.

[55]  W deVries,et al.  Evaluation of substances used in the GenX technology by Chemours, Dordrecht , 2016 .

[56]  Xavier Dauchy,et al.  Mass flows and fate of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the wastewater treatment plant of a fluorochemical manufacturing facility. , 2017, The Science of the total environment.

[57]  C. Polprasert,et al.  New POPs in the water environment: distribution, bioaccumulation and treatment of perfluorinated compounds – a review paper , 2007 .

[58]  Nobuyoshi Yamashita,et al.  Distribution of polyfluoroalkyl compounds in water, suspended particulate matter and sediment from Tokyo Bay, Japan. , 2010, Chemosphere.

[59]  Tobias Frömel,et al.  Biodegradation of fluorinated alkyl substances. , 2010, Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[60]  E. Beerendonk,et al.  Impact of treatment processes on the removal of perfluoroalkyl acids from the drinking water production chain. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[61]  Mushtaque Ahmad.  INNOVATIVE OXIDATION PATHWAYS FOR THE TREATMENT OF TRADITIONAL AND EMERGING CONTAMINANTS , 2012 .

[62]  Nicole Riddell,et al.  Discovery of 40 Classes of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Historical Aqueous Film-Forming Foams (AFFFs) and AFFF-Impacted Groundwater. , 2017, Environmental science & technology.

[63]  Hyunwoong Park,et al.  Sonochemical Degradation of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) in Landfill Groundwater: Environmental Matrix Effects , 2008 .

[64]  Elisabeth L. Hawley,et al.  Novel treatment technologies for PFAS compounds: A critical review. , 2017, Journal of environmental management.

[65]  L. Nies,et al.  Aerobic biodegradation of 8:2 fluorotelomer stearate monoester and 8:2 fluorotelomer citrate triester in forest soil. , 2013, Chemosphere.

[66]  J. Chen,et al.  Photo-reductive defluorination of perfluorooctanoic acid in water. , 2010, Water research.

[67]  D. Sedlak,et al.  Persistence of perfluoroalkyl acid precursors in AFFF-impacted groundwater and soil. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[68]  S. Pillai,et al.  Electron beam inactivation of selected microbial pathogens and indicator organisms in aerobically and anaerobically digested sewage sludge. , 2013, Bioresource technology.

[69]  Pengyi Zhang,et al.  Photochemical decomposition of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in an anoxic alkaline solution by 185nm vacuum ultraviolet , 2015 .

[70]  Lakhwinder S Hundal,et al.  Perfluoroalkyl acid distribution in various plant compartments of edible crops grown in biosolids-amended soils. , 2014, Environmental science & technology.

[71]  Shigeo Fujii,et al.  Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in sewage treatment plants. , 2009, Water research.

[72]  R. Arakawa,et al.  Persulfate-induced photochemical decomposition of a fluorotelomer unsaturated carboxylic acid in water. , 2007, Water research.

[73]  W. Dong,et al.  Investigation of the reactivity of hydrated electron toward perfluorinated carboxylates by laser flash photolysis , 2007 .

[74]  Lorne G. Everett,et al.  Groundwater Circulating Well Technology Assessment , 1999 .

[75]  Jun Huang,et al.  Adsorption behavior and mechanism of perfluorinated compounds on various adsorbents--a review. , 2014, Journal of hazardous materials.

[76]  B. Mader,et al.  Perfluorinated surfactant chain-length effects on sonochemical kinetics. , 2009, The journal of physical chemistry. A.

[77]  S. Mabury,et al.  Simultaneous analysis of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances including ultrashort-chain C2 and C3 compounds in rain and river water samples by ultra performance convergence chromatography. , 2017, Journal of chromatography. A.

[78]  H. Hori,et al.  Efficient decomposition of perfluorocarboxylic acids and alternative fluorochemical surfactants in hot water. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[79]  R. Arakawa,et al.  Efficient decomposition of environmentally persistent perfluorocarboxylic acids by use of persulfate as a photochemical oxidant. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[80]  Glenys M. Webster,et al.  Phosphorus-containing fluorinated organics: polyfluoroalkyl phosphoric acid diesters (diPAPs), perfluorophosphonates (PFPAs), and perfluorophosphinates (PFPIAs) in residential indoor dust. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[81]  S. Snyder,et al.  Sonochemical degradation of perfluorinated chemicals in aqueous film-forming foams. , 2016, Journal of hazardous materials.

[82]  Rula A. Deeb,et al.  Degradation and Removal Methods for Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Water , 2016 .

[83]  L. Ahrens,et al.  Plant Uptake of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances at a Contaminated Fire Training Facility to Evaluate the Phytoremediation Potential of Various Plant Species. , 2017, Environmental science & technology.

[84]  P. Chiueh,et al.  Efficient decomposition of perfluorocarboxylic acids in aqueous solution using microwave-induced persulfate. , 2009, Water research.

[85]  Resurgence of Pump and Treat Solutions: Directed Groundwater Recirculation , 2015 .

[86]  Gang Yu,et al.  Adsorption of perfluorinated compounds on aminated rice husk prepared by atom transfer radical polymerization. , 2013, Chemosphere.

[87]  Ning Wang,et al.  8-2 fluorotelomer alcohol aerobic soil biodegradation: pathways, metabolites, and metabolite yields. , 2009, Chemosphere.

[88]  Scott A Mabury,et al.  Biodegradation of polyfluoroalkyl phosphates as a source of perfluorinated acids to the environment. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[89]  T. Boving,et al.  Impact of ISCO Treatment on PFAA Co-Contaminants at a Former Fire Training Area. , 2017, Environmental science & technology.

[90]  H. Schröder,et al.  Stability of fluorinated surfactants in advanced oxidation processes--A follow up of degradation products using flow injection-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-multiple stage mass spectrometry. , 2005, Journal of chromatography. A.

[91]  Ning Wang,et al.  6-2 Fluorotelomer alcohol aerobic biodegradation in soil and mixed bacterial culture. , 2010, Chemosphere.

[92]  Jinxia Liu,et al.  Surface modification of activated carbon for enhanced adsorption of perfluoroalkyl acids from aqueous solutions. , 2016, Chemosphere.

[93]  S. Suthersan,et al.  Contemporary Management of Sites with Petroleum LNAPL Presence , 2015 .

[94]  Guixia Liu,et al.  A Porous Aromatic Framework Constructed from Benzene Rings Has a High Adsorption Capacity for Perfluorooctane Sulfonate , 2016, Scientific Reports.

[95]  Christine Spencer,et al.  Detection of a cyclic perfluorinated acid, perfluoroethylcyclohexane sulfonate, in the Great Lakes of North America. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[96]  B. Mader,et al.  Enhancement of perfluorooctanoate and perfluorooctanesulfonate activity at acoustic cavitation bubble interfaces , 2008 .

[97]  J. Field,et al.  Discovery and Implications of C2 and C3 Perfluoroalkyl Sulfonates in Aqueous Film-Forming Foams and Groundwater , 2015 .

[98]  S. Mabury,et al.  Fate of polyfluoroalkyl phosphate diesters and their metabolites in biosolids-applied soil: biodegradation and plant uptake in greenhouse and field experiments. , 2014, Environmental science & technology.

[99]  Peer Kirsch,et al.  Modern fluoroorganic chemistry , 2013 .

[100]  B. Mader,et al.  Sonochemical degradation of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) in groundwater: kinetic effects of matrix inorganics. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[101]  T J Mason,et al.  Large scale sonochemical processing: aspiration and actuality. , 2000, Ultrasonics sonochemistry.

[102]  N. Diban,et al.  Efficient electrochemical degradation of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) from the effluents of an industrial wastewater treatment plant , 2017 .

[103]  Jinxia Liu,et al.  Microbial degradation of polyfluoroalkyl chemicals in the environment: a review. , 2013, Environment international.

[104]  G. Bidoglio,et al.  EU-wide survey of polar organic persistent pollutants in European river waters. , 2009, Environmental pollution.

[105]  V. Ochoa-Herrera,et al.  Removal of perfluorinated surfactants by sorption onto granular activated carbon, zeolite and sludge. , 2008, Chemosphere.

[106]  R. Siegrist,et al.  Effects of chemical oxidants on perfluoroalkyl acid transport in one-dimensional porous media columns. , 2015, Environmental science & technology.

[107]  Kaimin Shih,et al.  Adsorption of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) on alumina: influence of solution pH and cations. , 2011, Water research.

[108]  Kiyotaka Tsunemi,et al.  Revaluation of stockpile amount of PFOS-containing aqueous film-forming foam in Japan: gaps and pitfalls in the stockpile survey , 2017, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[109]  L. Conte,et al.  Use of strong anion exchange resins for the removal of perfluoroalkylated substances from contaminated drinking water in batch and continuous pilot plants. , 2016, Water research.

[110]  Martin Scheringer,et al.  Estimating the contribution of precursor compounds in consumer exposure to PFOS and PFOA. , 2008, Chemosphere.

[111]  Å. Östlund,et al.  Removal efficiency of multiple poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in drinking water using granular activated carbon (GAC) and anion exchange (AE) column tests. , 2017, Water research.

[112]  S. Pillai,et al.  Electron beam radiation effects on properties and ecotoxicity of PHBV/PLA blends in presence of organo-modified montmorillonite , 2016 .

[113]  Gang Xu,et al.  EB degradation of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate in aqueous solution , 2017 .

[114]  M. Kleber,et al.  Sorption of Fluorotelomer Sulfonates, Fluorotelomer Sulfonamido Betaines, and a Fluorotelomer Sulfonamido Amine in National Foam Aqueous Film-Forming Foam to Soil. , 2017, Environmental science & technology.

[115]  Ian T Cousins,et al.  Sources, fate and transport of perfluorocarboxylates. , 2006, Environmental science & technology.

[116]  C. Rosin,et al.  Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in firefighting foam concentrates and water samples collected near sites impacted by the use of these foams. , 2017, Chemosphere.

[117]  Zhanyun Wang,et al.  A Never-Ending Story of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs)? , 2017, Environmental science & technology.

[118]  C. Criddle,et al.  Defluorination of Organofluorine Sulfur Compounds by Pseudomonas Sp. Strain D2 , 1998 .

[119]  Brett J. Vanderford,et al.  Treatment of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in U.S. full-scale water treatment systems. , 2014, Water research.

[120]  Marko Filipovic,et al.  A review of contamination of surface-, ground-, and drinking water in Sweden by perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) , 2016, Ambio.

[121]  D. Sedlak,et al.  Treatment of Aqueous Film-Forming Foam by Heat-Activated Persulfate Under Conditions Representative of In Situ Chemical Oxidation , 2017, Environmental science & technology.

[122]  Elsie M. Sunderland,et al.  Detection of Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in U.S. Drinking Water Linked to Industrial Sites, Military Fire Training Areas, and Wastewater Treatment Plants , 2016, Environmental science & technology letters.

[123]  J. Dolfing,et al.  Biodegradation of perfluorinated compounds. , 2008, Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[124]  Jinxia Liu,et al.  Adsorption of perfluoroalkyl acids by carbonaceous adsorbents: Effect of carbon surface chemistry. , 2015, Environmental pollution.

[125]  C. Murphy,et al.  Fluorinated Natural Products: Occurrence and Biosynthesis , 2003 .

[126]  Scott A Mabury,et al.  Fluorotelomer alcohol biodegradation yields poly- and perfluorinated acids. , 2004, Environmental science & technology.

[127]  T. Jaffré,et al.  Nickel uptake by Flacountiaceae of New Caledonia , 1979, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences.

[128]  Linda S. Lee,et al.  Aerobic soil biodegradation of 8:2 fluorotelomer stearate monoester. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[129]  Gang Yu,et al.  Selective removal of perfluorooctane sulfonate from aqueous solution using chitosan-based molecularly imprinted polymer adsorbents. , 2008, Water research.

[130]  S. Pillai,et al.  Electron Beam Technology and Other Irradiation Technology Applications in the Food Industry , 2017, Topics in Current Chemistry.

[131]  Richard G Luthy,et al.  Sorption of perfluorinated surfactants on sediments. , 2006, Environmental science & technology.

[132]  Erika F Houtz.  Oxidative Measurement of Perfluoroalkyl Acid Precursors: Implications for Urban Runoff Management and Remediation of AFFF-Contaminated Groundwater and Soil , 2013 .

[133]  Munoz Sg,et al.  Success Stories in the Process Industries , 2016 .

[134]  S. Mabury,et al.  Organic fluorine content in aqueous film forming foams (AFFFs) and biodegradation of the foam component 6 : 2 fluorotelomermercaptoalkylamido sulfonate (6 : 2 FTSAS) , 2013 .

[135]  Lihua Zhu,et al.  Reductive defluorination of perfluorooctanoic acid by hydrated electrons in a sulfite-mediated UV photochemical system. , 2013, Journal of hazardous materials.

[136]  Martin Reinhard,et al.  Perfluorochemicals in water reuse. , 2008, Chemosphere.

[137]  A. Tiehm,et al.  Electrochemical degradation of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in groundwater. , 2015, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[138]  Andrea C. Blaine,et al.  Perfluoroalkyl acid uptake in lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and strawberry (Fragaria ananassa) irrigated with reclaimed water. , 2014, Environmental science & technology.

[139]  C. Higgins,et al.  Electrochemical treatment of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) in groundwater impacted by aqueous film forming foams (AFFFs). , 2015, Journal of hazardous materials.

[140]  Jennifer A. Field,et al.  Zwitterionic, cationic, and anionic fluorinated chemicals in aqueous film forming foam formulations and groundwater from U.S. military bases by nonaqueous large-volume injection HPLC-MS/MS. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[141]  L. Alvarez-Cohen,et al.  Aerobic Biotransformation of Fluorotelomer Thioether Amido Sulfonate (Lodyne) in AFFF-Amended Microcosms. , 2015, Environmental science & technology.

[142]  Jun Huang,et al.  Efficient electrochemical oxidation of perfluorooctanoate using a Ti/SnO2-Sb-Bi anode. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[143]  R. Buck,et al.  Aerobic biodegradation of [14C] 6:2 fluorotelomer alcohol in a flow-through soil incubation system. , 2010, Chemosphere.

[144]  Roland Weber,et al.  PFOS and PFC releases and associated pollution from a PFC production plant in Minnesota (USA) , 2013, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[145]  B. Mader,et al.  Treatment technologies for aqueous perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) , 2009 .