Readability Research: An Interdisciplinary Approach

Readability is on the cusp of a revolution. Fixed text is becoming fluid as a proliferation of digital reading devices rewrite what a document can do. As past constraints make way for more flexible opportunities, there is great need to understand how reading formats can be tuned to the situation and the individual. We aim to provide a firm foundation for readability research, a comprehensive framework for modern, multi-disciplinary readability research. Readability refers to aspects of visual information design which impact information flow from the page to the reader. Readability can be enhanced by changes to the set of typographical characteristics of a text. These aspects can be modified on-demand, instantly improving the ease with which a reader can process and derive meaning from text. We call on a multi-disciplinary research community to take up these challenges to elevate reading outcomes and provide the tools to do so effectively.

[1]  Hanho Jeong,et al.  A comparison of the influence of electronic books and paper books on reading comprehension, eye fatigue, and perception , 2012, Electron. Libr..

[2]  C. Lee Giles,et al.  Screenomics: A Framework to Capture and Analyze Personal Life Experiences and the Ways that Technology Shapes Them , 2019, Hum. Comput. Interact..

[3]  Cathy J. Price,et al.  A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading , 2012, NeuroImage.

[4]  David Lindlbauer,et al.  Context-Aware Online Adaptation of Mixed Reality Interfaces , 2019, UIST.

[5]  C. Owsley.  Aging and vision , 2011, Vision Research.

[6]  Diederick C. Niehorster,et al.  What to expect from your remote eye-tracker when participants are unrestrained , 2017, Behavior Research Methods.

[7]  Susana T. L. Chung,et al.  Bolder print does not increase reading speed in people with central vision loss , 2018, Vision Research.

[8]  R. Flesch.  A new readability yardstick. , 1948, The Journal of applied psychology.

[9]  Walter Tracy,et al.  Letters of Credit: A View of Type Design , 1986 .

[10]  Jonathan Dobres,et al.  The great typography bake-off: comparing legibility at-a-glance , 2020, Ergonomics.

[11]  Jonathan Dobres,et al.  Utilising psychophysical techniques to investigate the effects of age, typeface design, size and display polarity on glance legibility , 2016, Ergonomics.

[12]  Kong-King Shieh,et al.  Effect of character size and lighting on legibility of electronic papers , 2008, Displays.

[13]  David Bartholomae,et al.  Ways of Reading: An Anthology for Writers , 1987 .

[14]  Despina Deligiorgi,et al.  Regression Modeling of Reader's Emotions Induced by Font Based Text Signals , 2013, HCI.

[15]  Fiona Draxler,et al.  Designing Task Resumption Cues for Interruptions in Mobile Learning Scenarios , 2021 .

[16]  J. Grainger,et al.  Letter perception: from pixels to pandemonium , 2008, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[17]  Kai Kunze,et al.  VR Reading UIs: Assessing Text Parameters for Reading in VR , 2018, CHI Extended Abstracts.

[18]  Julian Jang,et al.  A survey of emerging threats in cybersecurity , 2014, J. Comput. Syst. Sci..

[19]  James J. Cummings,et al.  The Use of Media in Media Psychology , 2016 .

[20]  Albrecht Schmidt,et al.  Virtual Field Studies: Conducting Studies on Public Displays in Virtual Reality , 2020, CHI.

[21]  Andrew S Phelps,et al.  Pairwise comparison versus Likert scale for biomedical image assessment. , 2015, AJR. American journal of roentgenology.

[22]  Sunwook Kim,et al.  Influences of augmented reality head-worn display type and user interface design on performance and usability in simulated warehouse order picking. , 2019, Applied ergonomics.

[23]  J Bouaud,et al.  Navigating through a document-centered electronic medical record: a mock-up based on WWW technology. , 1996, Proceedings : a conference of the American Medical Informatics Association. AMIA Fall Symposium.

[24]  Katharina Reinecke,et al.  Controlling for Participants’ Viewing Distance in Large-Scale, Psychophysical Online Experiments Using a Virtual Chinrest , 2020, Scientific Reports.

[25]  Christina Haas,et al.  Rhetorical reading strategies and the construction of meaning , 1988 .

[26]  Carsten Elbro,et al.  Activation of Background Knowledge for Inference Making: Effects on Reading Comprehension , 2013 .

[27]  Rebecca Treiman,et al.  So Much to Read, So Little Time , 2016, Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society.

[28]  Christoph M. Michel,et al.  EEG Source Imaging: A Practical Review of the Analysis Steps , 2019, Front. Neurol..

[29]  M. Knowles.  The Modern practice of adult education : andragogy versus pedagogy / , 1970 .

[30]  Anna Nowogrodzki,et al.  The world’s strongest MRI machines are pushing human imaging to new limits , 2018, Nature.

[31]  M. Leek.  Adaptive procedures in psychophysical research , 2001, Perception & psychophysics.

[32]  Aaron Hertzmann,et al.  Exploratory font selection using crowdsourced attributes , 2014, ACM Trans. Graph..

[33]  Peter A. Hancock,et al.  Hedonomics: The Power of Positive and Pleasurable Ergonomics , 2005 .

[34]  S Saito,et al.  How display polarity and lighting conditions affect the pupil size of VDT operators. , 1990, Ergonomics.

[35]  P. Howarth,et al.  The occurrence of virtual simulation sickness symptoms when an HMD was used as a personal viewing system , 1997 .

[36]  Graciela Rosemblat,et al.  Assessing Readability of Consumer Health Information: An Exploratory Study , 2004, MedInfo.

[37]  H. Felzmann,et al.  Ethical Issues in School-Based Research , 2009 .

[38]  Keith Rayner,et al.  Effects of intraword and interword spacing on eye movements during reading: Exploring the optimal use of space in a line of text , 2013, Attention, perception & psychophysics.

[39]  A. Wilkins,et al.  Reading at a distance: implications for the design of text in children's big books. , 2002, The British journal of educational psychology.

[40]  Sharon Poggenpohl.  Reading Letters, Designing for Legibility , 2012 .

[41]  J. Thayer,et al.  The continuing problem of false positives in repeated measures ANOVA in psychophysiology: a multivariate solution. , 1987, Psychophysiology.

[42]  Christian Klamler,et al.  Evaluative voting or classical voting rules: Does it make a difference? Empirical evidence for consensus among voting rules , 2019, European Journal of Political Economy.

[43]  Edward Gibson,et al.  Syntax encodes information structure: Evidence from on-line reading comprehension , 2011 .

[44]  Jukka Häkkinen,et al.  Examining mobile phone text legibility while walking , 2004, CHI EA '04.

[45]  Aude Oliva,et al.  A M/EEG-fMRI Fusion Primer: Resolving Human Brain Responses in Space and Time , 2020, Neuron.

[46]  Zoya Bylinskii,et al.  Using Behavioral Interactions from a Mobile Device to Classify the Reader's Prior Familiarity and Goal Conditions , 2020, ArXiv.

[47]  Michelle K. Hosp,et al.  Oral Reading Fluency as an Indicator of Reading Competence: A Theoretical, Empirical, and Historical Analysis , 2001 .

[48]  Anja Podlesek,et al.  Typeface comparison − Does the x-height of lower-case letters increased to the size of upper-case letters speed up recognition? , 2016 .

[49]  V. S. Harvey.  Improving readability of psychological reports. , 1997 .

[50]  Kin Lo,et al.  Earnings Management and Annual Report Readability , 2016 .

[51]  Ricardo Baeza-Yates,et al.  Predicting risk of dyslexia with an online gamified test , 2019, PloS one.

[52]  Jeffrey S Bowers,et al.  What do letter migration errors reveal about letter position coding in visual word recognition? , 2004, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[53]  R. A. Carlson,et al.  Effects of Practice on Font Legibility , 2003 .

[54]  Cathy D. Meade,et al.  Readability Formulas: Cautions and Criteria , 1991 .

[55]  Mary C. Dyson,et al.  The effects of reading speed and reading patterns on the understanding of text read from screen , 2000 .

[56]  Jonathan Dobres,et al.  The Effect of Font Weight and Rendering System on Glance-Based Text Legibility , 2016, AutomotiveUI.

[57]  Carol Bergfeld,et al.  Reading text from computer screens , 1987, CSUR.

[58]  Kathleen C. Perencevich,et al.  Role of reading engagement in mediating effects of reading comprehension instruction on reading outcomes , 2008 .

[59]  Xia Li,et al.  Visual Exploration of Eye Movement Data Using the Space-Time-Cube , 2010, GIScience.

[60]  James L. Peterson,et al.  Computer-based readability indexes , 1982, ACM '82.

[61]  Difeng Yu,et al.  Reading on 3D Surfaces in Virtual Environments , 2020, 2020 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR).

[62]  D. J. Hernandez,et al.  Early Education, Poverty, and Parental Circumstances among Hispanic Children: Pointing toward Needed Public Policies. , 2013 .

[63]  Roel M. Willems,et al.  Is less readable liked better? The case of font readability in poetry appreciation , 2019, PloS one.

[64]  S. Klein,et al.  Measuring, estimating, and understanding the psychometric function: A commentary , 2001, Perception & psychophysics.

[65]  Barbara S. Chaparro,et al.  Comparing the legibility of six ClearType typefaces to Verdana and Times New Roman , 2010 .

[66]  Martin Pielot,et al.  Make It Big!: The Effect of Font Size and Line Spacing on Online Readability , 2016, CHI.

[67]  Gordon E. Legge,et al.  Fonts Designed for Macular Degeneration: Impact on Reading , 2018, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[68]  S. Deacon,et al.  Not all sentences are created equal: Evaluating the relation between children’s understanding of basic and difficult sentences and their reading comprehension. , 2020 .

[69]  I L Bailey,et al.  The Design and Use of a New Near‐Vision Chart , 1980, American journal of optometry and physiological optics.

[70]  Nicolette de Keizer,et al.  Optimizing the user interface of a data entry module for an electronic patient record for cardiac rehabilitation: A mixed method usability approach , 2016, Int. J. Medical Informatics.

[71]  N. Kleitman,et al.  STUDIES ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF SLEEP: I. The Effects of Prolonged Sleeplessness on Man , 1923 .

[72]  M. Masson,et al.  Using confidence intervals in within-subject designs , 1994, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[73]  Nancy Padak,et al.  Is Reading Fluency a Key for Successful High School Reading , 2005 .

[74]  H. Catts,et al.  Viewing a phonological deficit within a multifactorial model of dyslexia , 2017 .

[75]  Thomas Schmidt,et al.  Mind Wandering in a Multimodal Reading Setting: Behavior Analysis & Automatic Detection Using Eye-Tracking and an EDA Sensor , 2020, Sensors.

[76]  Gregory L. Murphy,et al.  Time course of retrieving conceptual information: A speed-accuracy trade-off study , 2006, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[77]  Gordon E. Legge,et al.  Baseline MNREAD Measures for Normally Sighted Subjects From Childhood to Old Age , 2016, Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science.

[78]  Kwan-Liu Ma,et al.  Proximity-based visualization of movement trace data , 2009, 2009 IEEE Symposium on Visual Analytics Science and Technology.

[79]  Kusum L. Ailawadi,et al.  Six Lessons for In-Store Marketing from Six Years of Mobile Eye-Tracking Research , 2014 .

[80]  Rui Xu,et al.  Survey of clustering algorithms , 2005, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks.

[81]  M. Brysbaert.  How many words do we read per minute? A review and meta-analysis of reading rate , 2019 .

[82]  Sebastian Möller,et al.  User Experience of Reading in Virtual Reality — Finding Values for Text Distance, Size and Contrast , 2020, 2020 Twelfth International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX).

[83]  S. Thompson,et al.  Correcting for regression dilution bias: comparison of methods for a single predictor variable , 2000 .

[84]  James J. Cummings,et al.  Multitasking on a Single Device: Arousal and the Frequency, Anticipation, and Prediction of Switching Between Media Content on a Computer , 2014 .

[85]  Larry D. Reid,et al.  Towards A Reader-Friendly Font: Rationale for Developing a Typeface that is Friendly for Beginning Readers, Particularly Those Labelled Dyslexic. , 2004 .

[86]  Alberto Veneri,et al.  EyeClouds: A Visualization and Analysis Tool for Exploring Eye Movement Data , 2019, VINCI.

[87]  Robert A. Morris,et al.  P-13: Serifs Slow RSVP Reading at Very Small Sizes, but Don't Matter at Larger Sizes , 2002 .

[88]  Denzil Ferreira,et al.  AWARE: Mobile Context Instrumentation Framework , 2015, Front. ICT.

[89]  P. Gomez,et al.  Subtle Increases in Interletter Spacing Facilitate the Encoding of Words during Normal Reading , 2012, PloS one.

[90]  Per Bergamin,et al.  Comparing reading processes on e-ink displays and print , 2011, Displays.

[91]  S. Jamieson.  Reading and Engaging Sources: What Students' Use of Sources Reveals about Advanced Reading Skills. , 2013 .

[92]  R. Gonzalez.  Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences , 2003 .

[93]  S. Dehaene,et al.  Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the Visual Word Form Area. , 2002, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[94]  Song Gao,et al.  Spatio-Temporal Analytics for Exploring Human Mobility Patterns and Urban Dynamics in the Mobile Age , 2015, Spatial Cogn. Comput..

[95]  GORDON E. LEGGE,et al.  Psychophysics of Reading. VIII. The Minnesota Low- Vision Reading Test , 1989, Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry.

[96]  Chiron A.T. Oderkerk,et al.  Fonts of wider letter shapes improve recognition in peripheral vision , 2020 .

[97]  Kenneth J. Merkley,et al.  The Effect of Annual Report Readability on Analyst Following and the Properties of Their Earnings Forecasts , 2011 .

[98]  R. Martell.  At a stroke. , 2001, Nursing standard (Royal College of Nursing (Great Britain) : 1987).

[99]  Katherine S Binder,et al.  Literacy Skill Differences between Adult Native English and Native Spanish Speakers. , 2013, Journal of research and practice for adult literacy, secondary, and basic education.

[100]  K. Moore,et al.  The use of Likert scales with children. , 2014, Journal of pediatric psychology.

[101]  T. Barnett,et al.  New perspectives on reading and writing across the disciplines , 2019, Higher Education Research & Development.

[102]  Colin J Davis,et al.  The spatial coding model of visual word identification. , 2010, Psychological review.

[103]  Susana T. L. Chung.  The effect of letter spacing on reading speed in central and peripheral vision. , 2002, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[104]  Donald C. Fletcher,et al.  Random Word Recognition Chart Helps Scotoma Assessment in Low Vision , 2015, Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry.

[105]  Eugen Ružický,et al.  Processing and Visualization of Medical Data in a Multiuser Environment Using Artificial Intelligence , 2020, 2020 Cybernetics & Informatics (K&I).

[106]  Junle Wang,et al.  Hybrid-MST: A Hybrid Active Sampling Strategy for Pairwise Preference Aggregation , 2018, NeurIPS.

[107]  Eric Castet,et al.  Numeral Legibility and Visual Complexity , 2018, DRS2018: Catalyst.

[108]  Willem M. Otte,et al.  Clearly written, easily comprehended? The readability of websites providing information on epilepsy , 2015, Epilepsy & Behavior.

[109]  Kevin Larson,et al.  How does typeface familiarity affect reading performance and reader preference , 2013 .

[110]  Adrian G Barnett,et al.  Regression to the mean: what it is and how to deal with it. , 2004, International journal of epidemiology.

[111]  R. Maity,et al.  Relating Aesthetics of the GUI Text Elements with Readability using Font Family , 2018, Proceedings of the 2018 ACM Companion International Conference on Interactive Surfaces and Spaces.

[112]  Danielle S. McNamara,et al.  Text readability and intuitive simplification: A comparison of readability formulas , 2011 .

[113]  L. Berglund.  Regression dilution bias: Tools for correction methods and sample size calculation , 2012, Upsala journal of medical sciences.

[114]  Ying Zhu,et al.  Visualizing multiple text readability indexes , 2010, 2010 International Conference on Education and Management Technology.

[115]  Ziming Liu,et al.  Reading behavior in the digital environment: Changes in reading behavior over the past ten years , 2005, J. Documentation.

[116]  Joel S. Warm,et al.  Vigilance Requires Hard Mental Work and Is Stressful , 2008, Hum. Factors.

[117]  Robert Bringhurst,et al.  The Elements of Typographic Style , 1992 .

[118]  D. Spinelli,et al.  Crowding, reading, and developmental dyslexia. , 2009, Journal of vision.

[119]  Hong Yu,et al.  Readability Formulas and User Perceptions of Electronic Health Records Difficulty: A Corpus Study , 2017, Journal of medical Internet research.

[120]  Karim Jerbi,et al.  Simultaneous MEG and intracranial EEG recordings during attentive reading , 2009, NeuroImage.

[121]  M. Wallace,et al.  Learning to read critically in educational leadership and management , 2003 .

[122]  J. Mackiewicz,et al.  Why people perceive typefaces to have different personalities , 2004, International Professional Communication Conference, 2004. IPCC 2004. Proceedings..

[123]  W D Gaillard,et al.  fMRI identifies regional specialization of neural networks for reading in young children , 2003, Neurology.

[124]  Natasha Barrett,et al.  A Bayesian Mallows approach to nontransitive pair comparison data: How human are sounds? , 2017, The Annals of Applied Statistics.

[125]  E. C. Sanford.  The relative legibility of the small letters. , 1888 .

[126]  Benjamin Wolfe,et al.  Toward a Theory of Visual Information Acquisition in Driving , 2020, Hum. Factors.

[127]  S. Brand-Gruwel,et al.  Tracking the reading eye: towards a model of real-world reading , 2017, J. Comput. Assist. Learn..

[128]  Sung Jun Joo,et al.  Optimizing text for an individual's visual system: The contribution of visual crowding to reading difficulties , 2018, Cortex.

[129]  Nicholas Mattei,et al.  Empirical Evaluation of Voting Rules with Strictly Ordered Preference Data , 2011, ADT.

[130]  W. Seiple,et al.  Effects of Lighting on Reading Speed as a Function of Letter Size , 2018, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[131]  L. Kurlowicz,et al.  The Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE). , 1999, Director.

[132]  N. Frey,et al.  Contingency Teaching during Close Reading. , 2014 .

[133]  D. Pelli,et al.  Feature detection and letter identification , 2006, Vision Research.

[134]  Cynthia Pellegrini-Lafont,et al.  From Classmates to Inmates: An Integrated Approach to Break the School-to-Prison Pipeline , 2014 .

[135]  Peter Eisert,et al.  Interactive and Multimodal-based Augmented Reality for Remote Assistance using a Digital Surgical Microscope , 2019, 2019 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR).

[136]  J. Grainger,et al.  OB1-Reader: A Model of Word Recognition and Eye Movements in Text Reading , 2018, Psychological review.

[137]  J. Grainger,et al.  Exploring the temporal dynamics of visual word recognition in the masked repetition priming paradigm using event-related potentials , 2007, Brain Research.

[138]  Bill McDonald,et al.  Measuring Readability in Financial Disclosures , 2013 .

[139]  K. Rayner,et al.  Eye Movements as Reflections of Comprehension Processes in Reading , 2006 .

[140]  George W. McConkie,et al.  About Regressive Saccades in Reading and Their Relation to Word Identification , 1998 .

[141]  Nora Hollenstein,et al.  ZuCo, a simultaneous EEG and eye-tracking resource for natural sentence reading , 2018, Scientific Data.

[142]  Tobias Kretschmer,et al.  SURVEY OF LITERATURE , 2012 .

[143]  P. Fitzsimmons,et al.  A readability assessment of online Parkinson's disease information. , 2010, The journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.

[144]  Kate L. Howard,et al.  Why rate when you could compare? Using the “EloChoice” package to assess pairwise comparisons of perceived physical strength , 2018, PloS one.

[145]  Robin L Thompson,et al.  Reading time data for evaluating broad-coverage models of English sentence processing , 2013, Behavior research methods.

[146]  Martin Pielot,et al.  Size matters (spacing not): 18 points for a dyslexic-friendly Wikipedia , 2013, W4A.

[147]  Arthur C. Graesser,et al.  Educational Technologies that Support Reading Comprehension for Adults Who Have Low Literacy Skills , 2019, The Wiley Handbook of Adult Literacy.

[148]  Jas Brooks,et al.  Trigeminal-based Temperature Illusions , 2020, CHI.

[149]  J. Ziegler,et al.  Smart Phone, Smart Science: How the Use of Smartphones Can Revolutionize Research in Cognitive Science , 2011, PloS one.

[150]  Nuno M. Garcia,et al.  Identification of activities of daily living through data fusion on motion and magnetic sensors embedded on mobile devices , 2018, Pervasive Mob. Comput..

[151]  L. Fostick,et al.  Dyslexia as a multi-deficit disorder: Working memory and auditory temporal processing. , 2018, Acta psychologica.

[152]  Paul J. Schmitt,et al.  Analysis of the readability of patient education materials from surgical subspecialties , 2014, The Laryngoscope.

[153]  F. Vellutino,et al.  Response to Intervention as a Vehicle for Distinguishing Between Children With and Without Reading Disabilities , 2006, Journal of learning disabilities.

[154]  Andrew Sears,et al.  An empirical comparison of use-in-motion evaluation scenarios for mobile computing devices , 2005, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[155]  Brian W. Miller.  Using Reading Times and Eye-Movements to Measure Cognitive Engagement , 2015 .

[156]  M. Tinker,et al.  The effect of typography upon the perceptual span in reading. , 1947, The American journal of psychology.

[157]  David F. Dinges,et al.  Microcomputer analyses of performance on a portable, simple visual RT task during sustained operations , 1985 .

[158]  Roger Levy,et al.  Why readers regress to previous words: A statistical analysis , 2011, CogSci.

[159]  B. Reimer,et al.  Glanceable, legible typography over complex backgrounds , 2020, Ergonomics.

[160]  Andy Cockburn,et al.  Evaluating reading and analysis tasks on mobile devices: a case study of tilt and flick scrolling , 2009, OZCHI '09.

[161]  Eileen M. Napoliello,et al.  Abnormal Visual Motion Processing Is Not a Cause of Dyslexia , 2013, Neuron.

[162]  Kiyoshi Kiyokawa,et al.  Dynamic text management for see-through wearable and heads-up display systems , 2013, IUI '13.

[163]  Yunhyong Kim,et al.  Closing the loop: Assisting archival appraisal and information retrieval in one sweep , 2013, ASIST.

[164]  Sanjeev Sabharwal,et al.  Assessing Readability of Patient Education Materials: Current Role in Orthopaedics , 2010, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[165]  Kara D. Federmeier,et al.  Thirty years and counting: finding meaning in the N400 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP). , 2011, Annual review of psychology.

[166]  B. Pennington.  From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders , 2006, Cognition.

[167]  E. D. Toit.  The readability of integrated reports , 2017 .

[168]  Jinwook Seo,et al.  EyeBookmark: Assisting Recovery from Interruption during Reading , 2015, CHI.

[169]  Marc Sebban,et al.  A Survey on Metric Learning for Feature Vectors and Structured Data , 2013, ArXiv.

[170]  N. P. Smith,et al.  Readability: A Measure of the Performance of the Communication Function of Financial Reporting , 2016 .

[171]  Thomas S. Huang,et al.  DeepFont: Identify Your Font from An Image , 2015, ACM Multimedia.

[172]  Riad I. Hammoud,et al.  Passive Eye Monitoring: Algorithms, Applications and Experiments , 2008 .

[173]  D. Levi.  Crowding—An essential bottleneck for object recognition: A mini-review , 2008, Vision Research.

[174]  Byron Reeves,et al.  Time for the Human Screenome Project , 2020, Nature.

[175]  Arturo E. Hernandez,et al.  Impact of language proficiency and orthographic transparency on bilingual word reading: An fMRI investigation , 2006, NeuroImage.

[176]  Jeff Huang,et al.  Accelerating Adult Readers with Typeface: A Study of Individual Preferences and Effectiveness , 2020, CHI Extended Abstracts.

[177]  Patricia A. Alexander,et al.  How Subject-Matter Knowledge Affects Recall and Interest , 1994 .

[178]  A. Watson,et al.  Quest: A Bayesian adaptive psychometric method , 1983, Perception & psychophysics.

[179]  A. D. Trice,et al.  The Impact of a Specialized Font on the Reading Performance of Elementary Children with Reading Disability , 2020, Contemporary School Psychology.

[180]  H. Bernard,et al.  Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology , 2000 .

[181]  Nir Ailon,et al.  Reconciling real scores with binary comparisons: a unified logistic model for ranking , 2008, NIPS 2008.

[182]  Jan Stage,et al.  New techniques for usability evaluation of mobile systems , 2004, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[183]  Heejin Jeong,et al.  How Consistent Are the Best-Known Readability Equations in Estimating the Readability of Design Standards? , 2017, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication.

[184]  Jennifer Little Kegler,et al.  E‐readers, Computer Screens, or Paper: Does Reading Comprehension Change Across Media Platforms? , 2013 .

[185]  M. Bradshaw,et al.  Analysts’ Forecasts: What Do We Know after Decades of Work? , 2011 .

[186]  L. Cooke,et al.  Is the Mouse a “ Poor Man ’ s Eye Tracker ” ? , 2006 .

[187]  Katharina Reinecke,et al.  The Impact of Web Browser Reader Views on Reading Speed and User Experience , 2019, CHI.

[188]  Yi Guo,et al.  Selecting a sample size for studies with repeated measures , 2013, BMC Medical Research Methodology.

[189]  Tim Loughran,et al.  Measuring Readability in Financial Text , 2010 .

[190]  Jonathan Dobres,et al.  Assessing the impact of typeface design in a text-rich automotive user interface , 2014, Ergonomics.

[191]  James A Hanley,et al.  Random measurement error and regression dilution bias , 2010, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[192]  R. Bakeman.  Recommended effect size statistics for repeated measures designs , 2005, Behavior research methods.

[193]  Julie Alonzo,et al.  Examining the structure of reading comprehension: do literal, inferential, and evaluative comprehension truly exist? , 2013 .

[194]  Caroline Blais,et al.  The spatio-temporal dynamics of visual letter recognition , 2009, Cognitive neuropsychology.

[195]  Yusuke Sugano,et al.  Evaluation of Appearance-Based Methods and Implications for Gaze-Based Applications , 2019, CHI.

[196]  S. Dehaene,et al.  The unique role of the visual word form area in reading , 2011, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[197]  Ling Zhai,et al.  Comparison of reading performance on screen and on paper: A meta-analysis , 2018, Comput. Educ..

[198]  Peter Johnston,et al.  Prior knowledge and reading comprehension test bias , 1984 .

[199]  H. Strasburger,et al.  Fitting the psychometric function , 1999, Perception & psychophysics.

[200]  Gary Charness,et al.  Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization , 2022 .

[201]  Niels van Berkel,et al.  The Experience Sampling Method on Mobile Devices , 2017, ACM Comput. Surv..

[202]  Michelle R. Hribar,et al.  Electronic Health Records in Ophthalmology: Source and Method of Documentation. , 2018, American journal of ophthalmology.

[203]  Erik D. Reichle,et al.  Eye Movements During Mindless Reading , 2010, Psychological science.

[204]  K. Rayner,et al.  Preview benefit during eye fixations in reading for older and younger readers. , 2010, Psychology and aging.

[205]  Zhouhui Lian,et al.  Attribute2Font , 2020, ACM Trans. Graph..

[206]  N. Kucirkova.  Reader, come home: the reading brain in a digital world , 2019, Journal of Children and Media.

[207]  Joseph Kasser,et al.  A Proposed Research Programme for Determining a Metric for a Good Requirement , 2006 .

[208]  Daesung Moon,et al.  A semantic approach to improving machine readability of a large-scale attack graph , 2018, The Journal of Supercomputing.

[209]  Silvia Brem,et al.  The left occipitotemporal system in reading: Disruption of focal fMRI connectivity to left inferior frontal and inferior parietal language areas in children with dyslexia , 2011, NeuroImage.

[210]  Hailin Jin,et al.  Visual Font Pairing , 2018, IEEE Transactions on Multimedia.

[211]  R. Wagner,et al.  The Comprehension Problems for Second-Language Learners with Poor Reading Comprehension despite Adequate Decoding: A Meta-Analysis. , 2017, Journal of research in reading.

[212]  N. Agarwal,et al.  A comparative analysis of neurosurgical online education materials to assess patient comprehension , 2013, Journal of Clinical Neuroscience.

[213]  S. Beier,et al.  Smaller visual angles show greater benefit of letter boldness than larger visual angles. , 2019, Acta psychologica.

[214]  D. Heeger,et al.  Brain activity in visual cortex predicts individual differences in reading performance. , 1997, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[215]  Jonathan Dobres,et al.  Effects of ambient illumination, contrast polarity, and letter size on text legibility under glance-like reading. , 2017, Applied ergonomics.

[216]  G. Harry McLaughlin,et al.  SMOG Grading - A New Readability Formula. , 1969 .

[217]  Deborah Brandt,et al.  Literacy as Involvement: The Acts of Writers, Readers, and Texts , 1990 .

[218]  Arnulph Fuhrmann,et al.  The influence of text rotation, font and distance on legibility in VR , 2020, 2020 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VRW).

[219]  Jonathan Grainger,et al.  Modeling letter position coding in printed word perception , 2004 .

[220]  Michael Teistler,et al.  Improving Readability of Text in Realistic Virtual Reality Scenarios: Visual Magnification Without Restricting User Interactions , 2019, Mensch & Computer.

[221]  Sarah Grey,et al.  Concurrent data elicitation procedures, processes, and the early stages of L2 learning: A critical overview , 2014 .

[222]  Gerard de Melo,et al.  Fonts Like This but Happier: A New Way to Discover Fonts , 2020, ACM Multimedia.

[223]  Tie-Yan Liu,et al.  Learning to rank for information retrieval , 2009, SIGIR.

[224]  P. König,et al.  Combining EEG and eye tracking: identification, characterization, and correction of eye movement artifacts in electroencephalographic data , 2012, Front. Hum. Neurosci..

[225]  Jonathan Dobres,et al.  Empirical Assessment of the Legibility of the Highway Gothic and Clearview Signage Fonts , 2017 .

[226]  Ronald P. Carver,et al.  Reading Rate: A Review of Research and Theory , 1990 .

[227]  Clifford Nass,et al.  Cognitive control in media multitaskers , 2009, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[228]  D. Levine,et al.  Quantitative Readability Assessment of the Internal Medicine Online Patient Information on Annals.org , 2019, Cureus.

[229]  Patrick T. Goodbourn,et al.  Visual working memory for letters varies with familiarity but not complexity. , 2019, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[230]  Ronald P. Carver,et al.  Reading Rate: Theory, Research, and Practical Implications. , 1992 .

[231]  K. Larson,et al.  Design Improvements for Frequently Misrecognized Letters , 2010 .

[232]  T. Sejnowski,et al.  Removing electroencephalographic artifacts by blind source separation. , 2000, Psychophysiology.

[233]  Angela Statile,et al.  Assessment of Readability, Understandability, and Completeness of Pediatric Hospital Medicine Discharge Instructions , 2017, Journal of hospital medicine.

[234]  Allison Blodgett,et al.  Factors Related to Passage Length: Implications for Second Language Listening Comprehension , 2011, CogSci.

[235]  Hak Joon Kim,et al.  Reading from an LCD monitor versus paper: Teenagers’ reading performance , 2013 .

[236]  Andrew Sears,et al.  Capturing the effects of context on human performance in mobile computing systems , 2007, Personal and Ubiquitous Computing.

[237]  Anders Søgaard,et al.  Using Gaze to Predict Text Readability , 2017, BEA@EMNLP.

[238]  Marco Ehrlich,et al.  Automatic mapping of cyber security requirements to support network slicing in software-defined networks , 2017, 2017 22nd IEEE International Conference on Emerging Technologies and Factory Automation (ETFA).

[239]  Andrés Martin,et al.  Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-Based Program for Reading Problems at Any Level , 2005 .

[240]  David D. Paige,et al.  Reading Fluency and College Readiness , 2017 .

[241]  Franck Dernoncourt,et al.  Let Me Choose: From Verbal Context to Font Selection , 2020, ACL.

[242]  Virginia Clinton.  Reading from paper compared to screens: A systematic review and meta‐analysis , 2019, Journal of Research in Reading.

[243]  James E. Sheedy,et al.  Text Legibility and the Letter Superiority Effect , 2005, Hum. Factors.

[244]  Donald W. Brown.  Recognition of Typed Letters in Noise , 1963, Inf. Control..

[245]  Axel Buchner,et al.  Smaller pupil size and better proofreading performance with positive than with negative polarity displays , 2014, Ergonomics.

[246]  J. Courtis.  Readability of annual reports: Western versus Asian evidence , 1995 .

[247]  Ellen L. Block.  The Comprehension Strategies of Second Language Readers , 1986 .

[248]  A V Reed,et al.  Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off in Recognition Memory , 1973, Science.

[249]  A. Acquisti,et al.  Beyond the Turk: Alternative Platforms for Crowdsourcing Behavioral Research , 2016 .

[250]  Aaron K. Chatterji,et al.  Innovation and American K–12 Education , 2017, Innovation Policy and the Economy.

[251]  Steven Holtzman,et al.  Relative Effectiveness of Reading Intervention Programs for Adults With Low Literacy , 2011, Journal of research on educational effectiveness.

[252]  Manfredo Atzori,et al.  Head-mounted eye gaze tracking devices: An overview of modern devices and recent advances , 2018, Journal of rehabilitation and assistive technologies engineering.

[253]  C. Spearman,et al.  The method of 'right and wrong cases' ('constant stimuli') without Gauss's formulae , 1908 .

[254]  Trevor Brothers,et al.  Anticipating syntax during reading: Evidence from the boundary change paradigm. , 2016, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[255]  Page-Turning Techniques for Reading Interfaces in Virtual Environments , 2020, OZCHI.

[256]  Ya-Hsien Ko,et al.  The effects of luminance contrast, colour combinations, font, and search time on brand icon legibility. , 2017, Applied ergonomics.

[257]  Sarah Risse.  Effects of visual span on reading speed and parafoveal processing in eye movements during sentence reading. , 2014, Journal of vision.

[258]  F. Ramus,et al.  From genes to behavior in developmental dyslexia , 2006, Nature Neuroscience.

[259]  George R. Klare,et al.  A Second Look at the Validityl of Readability Formulasa , 1976 .

[260]  M. Tinker,et al.  The study of eye movements in reading. , 1946, Psychological bulletin.

[261]  Nora Hollenstein,et al.  ZuCo 2.0: A Dataset of Physiological Recordings During Natural Reading and Annotation , 2020, LREC.

[262]  Joseph Bizup,et al.  BEAM: A Rhetorical Vocabulary for Teaching Research-Based Writing , 2008 .

[263]  E. Fry,et al.  Teaching Faster Reading: A Manual , 1963 .

[264]  Wojciech Matusik,et al.  Eye Tracking for Everyone , 2016, 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).

[265]  Paula J Schwanenflugel,et al.  A Longitudinal Study of the Development of Reading Prosody as a Dimension of Oral Reading Fluency in Early Elementary School Children. , 2008, Reading research quarterly.

[266]  P. Holcomb,et al.  Event-related brain potentials elicited by syntactic anomaly , 1992 .

[267]  Jonathan Dobres,et al.  The Cost of Cool: Typographic Style Legibility in Reading at a Glance , 2017 .

[268]  Michael L. Bernard,et al.  The effects of font type and size on the legibility and reading time of online text by older adults , 2001, CHI Extended Abstracts.

[269]  Naftali Tishby,et al.  Machine learning and the physical sciences , 2019, Reviews of Modern Physics.

[270]  Eva Siegenthaler,et al.  LCD vs. E-ink: An Analysis of the Reading Behavior , 2012 .

[271]  D P Connelly,et al.  Computerized patient records in primary care. Their role in mediating guideline-driven physician behavior change. , 1995, Archives of family medicine.

[272]  Albrecht Schmidt,et al.  Building Cognition-Aware Systems: A Mobile Toolkit for Extracting Time-of-Day Fluctuations of Cognitive Performance , 2017, Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol..

[273]  Andy Wai Kan Yeung,et al.  Readability of the 100 Most-Cited Neuroimaging Papers Assessed by Common Readability Formulae , 2018, Front. Hum. Neurosci..

[274]  E. B. Huey.  The Psychology And Pedagogy Of Reading , 1908 .

[275]  G. Legge,et al.  Korean reading speed: Effects of print size and retinal eccentricity , 2018, Vision Research.

[276]  Pieter J. Blignaut,et al.  Visual span and other parameters for the generation of heatmaps , 2010, ETRA.

[277]  Milos Hauskrecht,et al.  Active Learning of Classification Models with Likert-Scale Feedback , 2017, SDM.

[278]  Sing-Hang Cheung,et al.  The case for the visual span as a sensory bottleneck in reading. , 2007, Journal of vision.

[279]  K. Rayner.  Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. , 1998, Psychological bulletin.

[280]  A. Jacobs,et al.  Coregistration of eye movements and EEG in natural reading: analyses and review. , 2011, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[281]  A. Barnett,et al.  Readability of Accounting and Auditing Messages , 1979 .

[282]  What’s in a Font?: Ideological Perceptions of Typography , 2020 .

[283]  John Krumm,et al.  Ubiquitous Computing Fundamentals , 2009 .

[284]  Enrico Rukzio,et al.  Investigating selection and reading performance on a mobile phone while walking , 2010, Mobile HCI.

[285]  M. Dyson,et al.  The Influence of Serifs on 'H' and 'I': Useful Knowledge from Design-Led Scientific Research , 2013 .

[286]  Sridhar Ravula,et al.  Text analysis in financial disclosures , 2021, ArXiv.

[287]  E Nygren,et al.  Reading the medical record. II. Design of a human-computer interface for basic reading of computerized medical records. , 1992, Computer methods and programs in biomedicine.

[288]  H. Levitt.  Transformed up-down methods in psychoacoustics. , 1971, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.

[289]  Marloes M. L. Muijselaar,et al.  The effects of updating ability and knowledge of reading strategies on reading comprehension. , 2015 .

[290]  Anshu Agarwal,et al.  Beyond usability: evaluating emotional response as an integral part of the user experience , 2009, CHI Extended Abstracts.

[291]  C E Schroeder,et al.  Neural generators of early cortical somatosensory evoked potentials in the awake monkey. , 1995, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[292]  M. Kutas,et al.  Reading senseless sentences: brain potentials reflect semantic incongruity. , 1980, Science.

[293]  Stephen A. Brewster,et al.  The Effect of Age and Font Size on Reading Text on Handheld Computers , 2005, INTERACT.

[294]  Pei-Luen Patrick Rau,et al.  Speed reading on virtual reality and augmented reality , 2018, Comput. Educ..

[295]  G E Legge,et al.  Psychophysics of reading--X. Effects of age-related changes in vision. , 1991, Journal of gerontology.