Biomedical application of immobilized enzymes.

Reports on chemical immobilization of proteins and enzymes first appeared in the 1960s. Since then, immobilized proteins and enzymes have been widely used in the processing of variety of products and increasingly used in the field of medicine. Here, we present a review of recent developments in immobilized enzyme use in medicine. Generally speaking, the use of immobilized enzyme in medicine can be divided into two major categories: biosensors and bioreactors. A brief overview of the evolution of the biosensor and bioreactor technology, of currently existing applications of immobilized enzymes, of problems that researchers encountered, and of possible future developments will be presented.

[1]  F. Veronese,et al.  PEG-modified glucose oxidase immobilized on a PVA cryogel membrane for amperometric biosensor applications. , 1998, Talanta.

[2]  M. Tissot,et al.  Effect of encapsulation on the anti-inflammatory properties of superoxide dismutase after oral administration. , 1995, Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry.

[3]  J. L. Way,et al.  Antagonism of paraoxon intoxication by recombinant phosphotriesterase encapsulated within sterically stabilized liposomes. , 1999, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[4]  W. Torbicz,et al.  PH-ISFET BASED UREA BIOSENSOR , 1997 .

[5]  I Karube,et al.  Micromachining Technology and Biosensors , 1995, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[6]  Z. Shen,et al.  Highly efficient immobilization of phospholipase A2 and its biomedical applications. , 1995, Journal of lipid research.

[7]  N. Kim,et al.  EDTA Determination by Urease-Based Inhibition Biosensor , 1998 .

[8]  M. Magnani,et al.  Red blood cell phagocytosis following hexokinase inactivation , 1994, Cell biochemistry and function.

[9]  G A Baker,et al.  Kinetics and thermodynamics of free flavins and the flavin-based redox active site within glucose oxidase dissolved in solution or sequestered within a sol-gel-derived glass. , 1999, Analytical chemistry.

[10]  T. Todoroki,et al.  Fluorometric determination of carnitine in serum with immobilized carnitine dehydrogenase and diaphorase. , 1990, Clinical chemistry.

[11]  Róbert E. Gyurcsányi,et al.  Fast response potentiometric acetylcholine biosensor , 1999 .

[12]  M. H. de Keijzer,et al.  Evaluation of a biosensor for the measurement of lactate in whole blood. , 1999, Clinical biochemistry.

[13]  Tipton Kf,et al.  The influence of enzyme concentration on the encapsulation of glutamate dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase in red blood cells , 1995, Biotechnology and applied biochemistry.

[14]  J. Kong,et al.  A reagentless amperometric biosensor based on the coimmobilization of horseradish peroxidase and methylene green in a modified zeolite matrix , 1999 .

[15]  David Avnir,et al.  Enzymes and Other Proteins Entrapped in Sol-Gel Materials , 1994 .

[16]  L. Gorton,et al.  Enzymatic determination of glucose in a flow system by catalytic oxidation of the nicotinamide coenzyme at a modified electrode , 1985 .

[17]  Bruce Dunn,et al.  Strategies for encapsulating biomolecules in sol-gel matrices , 1998 .

[18]  W. Cascio,et al.  Amperometric monitoring of lactate accumulation in rabbit ischemic myocardium. , 1997, Talanta.

[19]  T. Allen.  Long-circulating (sterically stabilized) liposomes for targeted drug delivery. , 1994, Trends in pharmacological sciences.

[20]  A. Avraham,et al.  Immobilization of recombinant heparinase I fused to cellulose-binding domain. , 1999, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[21]  S. Turmanova,et al.  Radiation grafting of acrylic acid onto polytetrafluoroethylene films for glucose oxidase immobilization and its application in membrane biosensor , 1997 .

[22]  M. Smyth,et al.  Amperometric enzyme electrode for theophylline. , 1991, The Analyst.

[23]  Tsutomu Horiuchi,et al.  Small-Volume On-Line Sensor for Continuous Measurement of γ-Aminobutyric Acid , 1998 .

[24]  R. Perez-soler,et al.  Biological characterization of L-asparaginase liposomal formulations , 1996, Cancer Chemotherapy and Pharmacology.

[25]  R. Perez-soler,et al.  Liposomal l-asparaginase: in vitro evaluation , 1993 .

[26]  M. Bergeron,et al.  Comparative pharmacokinetics, distributions in tissue, and interactions with blood proteins of conventional and sterically stabilized liposomes containing 2',3'-dideoxyinosine , 1996, Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy.

[27]  Itamar Willner,et al.  Glucose oxidase electrodes via reconstitution of the apo-enzyme: tailoring of novel glucose biosensors , 1999 .

[28]  J. Creeth,et al.  Reactive liposomes encapsulating a glucose oxidase-peroxidase system with antibacterial activity. , 1997, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[29]  Y. Lee,et al.  DEVELOPMENT OF A BIOSENSOR WITH IMMOBILIZED L‐AMINO ACID OXIDASE FOR DETERMINATION OF L‐AMINO ACIDS , 1999 .

[30]  L. Gorton,et al.  A glucose sensor based on glucose dehydrogenase adsorbed on a modified carbon electrode , 1986 .

[31]  Hongyuan Chen,et al.  A miniaturized glucose biosensor based on the coimmobilization of glucose oxidase and ferrocene perchlorate in nafion at a microdisk platinum electrode , 1997 .

[32]  S. Braun,et al.  An optical biosensor based upon glucose oxidase immobilized in sol‐gel silicate matrix , 1994, Biotechnology and applied biochemistry.

[33]  S. Cosnier,et al.  Peroxidase-glucose oxidase-poly(amphiphilic pyrrole) bioelectrode for selectively mediated amperometric detection of glucose , 1997 .

[34]  Lo Gorton,et al.  On the mechanism of H2O2 reduction at Prussian Blue modified electrodes , 1999 .

[35]  Frank Wedekind,et al.  Immobilized Enzymes: Methods and Applications , 1999 .

[36]  P Atanasov,et al.  Implantation of a refillable glucose monitoring-telemetry device. , 1997, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[37]  F. Scheller,et al.  A Bienzyme Carbon Paste Electrode for the Sensitive Detection of NADPH and the Measurement of Glucose‐6‐phosphate Dehydrogenase , 1999 .

[38]  M. D. Marazuela,et al.  Determination of choline-containing phospholipids in serum with a fiber-optic biosensor , 1998 .

[39]  Siliang Zhang,et al.  Immobilization of L-glutamate oxidase and peroxidase for glutamate determination in flow injection analysis system , 1996 .

[40]  B. Ye,et al.  Improvement of the performance of H2O2 oxidation at low working potential by incorporating TTF-TCNQ into a platinum wire electrode for glucose determination. , 1999, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[41]  Zhiping Jiang,et al.  Preparation of titanium diboride from titanium alkoxides and boron powder , 1992 .

[42]  R. Kopelman,et al.  Analytical properties and sensor size effects of a micrometer-sized optical fiber glucose biosensor. , 1996, Analytical chemistry.

[43]  Otto S. Wolfbeis,et al.  Fully reversible fibre-optic glucose biosensor based on the intrinsic fluorescence of glucose oxidase , 1989 .

[44]  C. Mitra,et al.  Electrochemistry of reconstituted glucose oxidase on carbon paste electrodes , 1998 .

[45]  C. Ruan,et al.  A reagentless amperometric hydrogen peroxide biosensor based on covalently binding horseradish peroxidase and thionine using a thiol-modified gold electrode , 1998 .

[46]  P. Zambonin,et al.  Amperometric sensor for choline and acetylcholine based on a platinum electrode modified by a co-crosslinked bienzymic system , 1995 .

[47]  T. Allen.  Liposomal drug formulations. Rationale for development and what we can expect for the future. , 1998, Drugs.

[48]  Hye-Sung Lee,et al.  Flow Injection Biosensor for the Detection of Anti-Cholinesterases , 1998 .

[49]  Q. Fang,et al.  A flow injection microdialysis sampling chemiluminescence system for in vivo on-line monitoring of glucose in intravenous and subcutaneous tissue fluid microdialysates. , 1997, Analytical chemistry.

[50]  Garry A. Rechnitz,et al.  Dual-enzyme fiber optic biosensor for pyruvate , 1997 .

[51]  Y. Nakayama,et al.  Surface fixation of hydrogels. Heparin and glucose oxidase hydrogelated surfaces. , 1992, ASAIO journal.

[52]  K. Kano,et al.  Peroxidase-based amperometric sensor of hydrogen peroxide generated in oxidase reaction: Application to creatinine and creatine assay , 1997 .

[53]  Kevin M. Johnson,et al.  Gadolinium‐bearing red cells as blood pool MRI contrast agents , 1998, Magnetic resonance in medicine.

[54]  Joseph R. Lakowicz,et al.  Optical assay for glucose based on the luminescnence decay time of the long wavelength dye Cy5™. , 1997, Sensors and actuators. B, Chemical.

[55]  Y Q Zhang,et al.  Improved biosensor for glucose based on glucose oxidase-immobilized silk fibroin membrane , 1998, Applied biochemistry and biotechnology.

[56]  W. Lee,et al.  LB film containing acetylcholinesterase for fiber-optic organophosphorus sensor , 1997 .

[57]  C. Potten,et al.  Photoprotection by Topical DMA Repair Enzymes: Molecular Correlates of Clinical Studies , 1999, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[58]  L. Gorton,et al.  Redox polymers for electrocatalytic oxidation of NADH – A random block methyl‐siloxane polymer containing meldola blue , 1995 .

[59]  N. Li-hua,et al.  Sensitive Specialization Analysis of Urea in Human Blood by Surface Acoustic Wave Urea Sensor System , 1996 .

[60]  M. Bergeron,et al.  Encapsulation of foscarnet in liposomes modifies drug intracellular accumulation, in vitro anti‐HIV-1 activity, tissue distribution, and pharmacokinetics , 1995, AIDS.

[61]  S. Reddy,et al.  Ion exchanger modified PVC membranes--selectivity studies and response amplification of oxalate and lactate enzyme electrodes. , 1997, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[62]  C. Martelet,et al.  Application of enzyme field-effect transistors for determination of glucose concentrations in blood serum. , 1999, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[63]  S. Dong,et al.  Self-gelatinizable copolymer immobilized glucose biosensor based on prussian blue modified graphite electrode. , 1998, The Analyst.

[64]  M. N. Gupta,et al.  Chemical modification and chemical cross-linking for protein/enzyme stabilization. , 1998, Biochemistry. Biokhimiia.

[65]  Bruce Dunn,et al.  Enzymatic activity of glucose oxidase encapsulated in transparent glass by the sol-gel method , 1992 .

[66]  O. Wolfbeis,et al.  Oxygen optrode for use in a fiber-optic glucose biosensor. , 1990, Analytical chemistry.

[67]  P. Karle,et al.  Characterization of a Human Cell Clone Expressing Cytochrome P450 for Safe Use in Human Somatic Cell Therapy , 1999, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[68]  E. Hall,et al.  A lactulose sensor based on coupled enzyme reactions with a ring electrode fabricated from tetrathiafulvalen-tetracyanoquinodimetane. , 1998, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[69]  A needle-type sensor for monitoring glucose in whole blood. , 1997, Biomedical instrumentation & technology.

[70]  W. Cascio,et al.  A conducting salt-based amperometric biosensor for measurement of extracellular lactate accumulation in ischemic myocardium. , 1997, Analytical chemistry.

[71]  E. J. Calvoa,et al.  Amperometric Enzyme Electrodes , 1998 .

[72]  A. Herráez,et al.  In vivo survival and organ uptake of loaded carrier rat erythrocytes. , 1996, Journal of biochemistry.

[73]  G G Guilbault,et al.  The use of polymers coupled with metallised electrodes to allow H(2)O(2) detection in the presence of electrochemical interferences. , 1999, Talanta.

[74]  Séamus P.J. Higson,et al.  Poly(o-phenylenediamine) ultra-thin polymer-film composite membranes for enzyme electrodes , 1997 .

[75]  On‐line flow sensor for measuring acetylcholine combined with microdialysis sampling probe , 1997 .

[76]  S. Cosnier,et al.  Enhancement of biosensor sensitivity in aqueous and organic solvents using a combination of poly(pyrrole-ammonium) and poly(pyrrole-lactobionamide) films as host matrices. , 1998 .

[77]  M. Vidal,et al.  Study of the thermal stability and enzymatic activity of an immobilised enzymatic system for the bilirubin oxidation. , 1999, Biomaterials.

[78]  B. Gilchrest,et al.  Enzyme therapy of xeroderma pigmentosum: safety and efficacy testing of T4N5 liposome lotion containing a prokaryotic DNA repair enzyme , 1996, Photodermatology, photoimmunology & photomedicine.

[79]  R. Linsenmeier,et al.  Fabrication of a mediated glucose oxidase recessed microelectrode for the amperometric determination , 1996 .

[80]  S. Upadhyay,et al.  A New Glucose Biosensor Based on Sandwich Configuration of Organically Modified Sol-Gel Glass , 1999 .

[81]  J. C. Diez,et al.  In vivo behaviour of rat band 3 cross-linked carrier erythrocytes. , 1998, Biochimie.

[82]  R. Langer,et al.  Heparinase Immobilization Characterization and Optimization a , 1988, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[83]  M. Löhr,et al.  Intratumoral injection of encapsulated cells producing an oxazaphosphorine activating cytochrome P450 for targeted chemotherapy. , 1998, Advances in experimental medicine and biology.

[84]  Yongcheng Liu,et al.  Feature of Entrapment of Glucose Oxidase in Regenerated Silk Fibroin Membranes and Fabrication of a 1,1′-Dimethylferrocene-Mediating Glucose Sensor , 1996 .

[85]  Juan Li,et al.  Renewable silica sol-gel derived carbon composite based glucose biosensor , 1999 .

[86]  C Lizano,et al.  In vitro study of alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase encapsulated into human erythrocytes by an electroporation procedure. , 1998, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[87]  R. Langer,et al.  Extracorporeal enzymatic heparin removal: use in a sheep dialysis model. , 1987, Kidney international.

[88]  K. Cammann,et al.  A disposable biosensor for urea determination in blood based on an ammonium-sensitive transducer. , 1999, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[89]  M. Moreno-Bondi,et al.  Free cholesterol fiber-optic biosensor for serum samples with simplex optimization. , 1997, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[90]  Michael Grätzel,et al.  A glucose biosensor based on enzyme entrapment within polypyrrole films electrodeposited on mesoporous titanium dioxide , 1999 .

[91]  W. Wernet,et al.  A highly sensitive amperometric creatinine sensor , 1997 .

[92]  Nicole Jaffrezic-Renault,et al.  Application of charged polymeric materials as additional permselective membranes for improvement of the performance characteristics of urea-sensitive enzymatic field effect transistors 1. Determination of urea in model solutions , 1997 .

[93]  Zeev Rosenzweig,et al.  A fiber optic sensor for rapid analysis of bilirubin in serum , 1997 .

[94]  J. Creeth,et al.  Antibacterial reactive liposomes encapsulating coupled enzyme systems , 1998 .

[95]  John P. Hart,et al.  Fabrication and characterization of a screen-printed, disposable, amperometric cholesterol biosensor , 1994 .

[96]  B. Nebe,et al.  Targeted chemotherapy by intratumour injection of encapsulated cells engineered to produce CYP2B1, an ifosfamide activating cytochrome P450 , 1998, Gene Therapy.

[97]  C. O. Fágáin,et al.  Functionally-stabilized proteins--a review. , 1991, Biotechnology advances.

[98]  A. M. Yacynych,et al.  The Spectroelectrochemical Study of the Oxidation of 1,2‐Diaminobenzene: Alone and in the Presence of Ni(II) , 1976 .

[99]  T. Chang,et al.  Orally Ingested Microencapsulated Urease and an Adsorbent, Zirconium Phosphate, to Remove Urea in Kidney Failure , 1987, International Journal of Artificial Organs.

[100]  †‡§ and Iqbal Gill,et al.  Encapsulation of Biologicals within Silicate, Siloxane, and Hybrid Sol−Gel Polymers: An Efficient and Generic Approach , 1998 .

[101]  Baohong Liu,et al.  Al2O3 sol–gel derived amperometric biosensor for glucose , 1999 .