World population growth currently brings unequal access to food, whereas crop yields are not increasing at a similar rate, so that future food demand could be unmet. Many recent research works address the use of optimization techniques and technological resources on precision agriculture, especially in large demand crops, including climatic variables monitoring using wireless sensor networks (WSNs). However, few studies have focused on analyzing the dynamics of the environmental measurement properties in greenhouses. In the two companion papers, we describe the design and implementation of three WSNs with different technologies and topologies further scrutinizing their comparative performance, and a detailed analysis of their energy consumption dynamics is also presented, both considering tomato greenhouses in the Andean region of Ecuador. The three WSNs use ZigBee with star topology, ZigBee with mesh topology (referred to here as DigiMesh), and WiFi with access point topology. The present study provides a systematic and detailed analysis of the environmental measurement dynamics from multiparametric monitoring in Ecuadorian tomato greenhouses. A set of monitored variables (including CO2, air temperature, and wind direction, among others) are first analyzed in terms of their intrinsic variability and their short-term (circadian) rhythmometric behavior. Then, their cross-information is scrutinized in terms of scatter representations and mutual information analysis. Based on Bland–Altman diagrams, good quality rhythmometric models were obtained at high-rate sampling signals during four days when using moderate regularization and preprocessing filtering with 100-coefficient order. Accordingly, and especially for the adjustment of fast transition variables, it is appropriate to use high sampling rates and then to filter the signal to discriminate against false peaks and noise. In addition, for variables with similar behavior, a longer period of data acquisition is required for the adequate processing, which makes more precise the long-term modeling of the environmental signals.

With the proliferation of wireless sensor networks, the high-density of sensing data is imposing a significant challenge on spectrum management to share the existing bandwidth. In this paper, a spectrum efficient data encoding scheme is proposed using a set of analog orthogonal modified Hermite pulses. The novelty of this approach is to use an analog pulse-sequence based data encoding scheme, that reduces multi-user interference and supports more data by sharing the same network bandwidth. The serial-parallel data transmission techniques are proposed using a set of distinct pulse sequences instead of a single pulse. The analog pulse set generation and the pulse encoding scheme is analyzed through MATLAB simulation package. Simulation results show that the proposed data encoding scheme will provide 6-times improvement in data rate for 4 distinct orthogonal pulses. The proposed scheme will be a promising feature for high density larger array sensor signal monitoring in a wireless sensor network.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have been widely applied in agriculture field; meanwhile, the advent of multi-domain software-defined networks (SDNs) have improved the wireless resource utilization rate and strengthened network management. In recent times, multi-domain SDNs have been applied to agricultural sensor networks, namely multi-domain software-defined wireless sensor networks (SDWSNs). However, when the SDNs controlling agriculture networks suddenly become unavailable, whether intra-domain or inter-domain, sensor network communication is abnormal because of the loss of control. Moreover, there are controller and switch info-updating problems even if the controller becomes available again. To resolve these problems, this paper proposes a new approach based on an Open vSwitch extension for multi-domain SDWSNs, which can enhance agriculture network survivability and stability. We achieved this by designing a connection-state mechanism, a communication mechanism on both L2 and L3, and an info-updating mechanism based on Open vSwitch. The experimental results show that, whether it is agricultural inter-domain or intra-domain during the controller failure period, the sensor switches can enter failure recovery mode as soon as possible so that the sensor network keeps a stable throughput, a short failure recovery time below 300 ms, and low packet loss. Further, the domain can smoothly control the domain network again once the controller becomes available. This approach based on an Open vSwitch extension can enhance the survivability and stability of multi-domain SDWSNs in precision agriculture.

Wireless sensor networks (WSN) is an important and exciting technology with great potential for application in various fields including medicine, transportation, agriculture, industrial process control, global-scale environmental monitoring and precision agriculture. This paper reviews the application of WSN in automating irrigation management and rescheduling. Irrigation management and rescheduling based on WSN are potential solutions for optimum water management via automatic access to in-field soil moisture conditions and control of irrigation systems.

Wireless sensor network is a modern technology used for remotely monitoring the agricultural farms. Sensor network with sensor such as moisture sensor, temperature sensor, and humidity sensor can be used for control of the farm’s moisture, temperature, humidity either manually or automatically. In this paper simulation is performed by placing the sensor nodes at various locations in the square-shaped one hectare area. Simulation is performed on four different topologies, namely random, cluster, star with gateway inside, star with gateway outside and the performance of the system is compared for all the four topologies and suitable topologies are proposed for the system. In the selected topology a communication technique is proposed for irrigation application showing the energy efficiency of sensor network. In this application, wireless sensor network uses IEEE 802.15.4/Zigbee communication standard for the topology study. In the selected topology, ad hoc on demand distance vector and dynamic source routing protocol are implemented in star topology with gateway at centre to determine the energy-efficient network.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have attracted researchers and devel opers in the last decade because of its small size, minimum power consumption and lightweight, having the ability to monitor, measure and communicate over wireless channel in various fields of our daily life. This paper evaluates WSNs applications in agriculture, comparing different IEEE802.15.4/ZigBee topologies (Tree, Mesh and Grid) for the enhanced and precision agriculture. Multiple network scenarios are simulated to study the performance of WSNs topologies in terms of throughput, network load and end-to-end delay. Simulation results show that the WSNs have better throughput and network usage when tree topology is used. WSNs with tree topology show an increase of 11% and 57% in throughput as compare to Mesh and Grid topologies respectively. Tree topology also has 35% and 80% more network load than Mesh and Grid topologies respectively. However, the end-to-end delay of ZigBee based Tree topology has 1% and 2 % more delay than Mesh and Grid respectively, which is negligible in the proposed study.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) has improved drastically in recent period of time to an extent that in is now utilizing in the fields like, military data gathering, pollution management etc. this advancement in WSN increases the application area. WSN is also utilizing in automation of building, industries, homes and transportation systems etc. In this paper we presented a new design approach for WSN suffering from problems. The approach is based on intelligence use of cell head especially to transmit the information to main sink. This paper also gives brief summary of agriculture precision using different technologies in the literature. These design grids in network are classified in to two broad categories: Hexagonal grid based cell and Square Grid based Cell. Each design has its own advantages and disadvantages. The performance for the considered simulation scenarios is very close to the peak performance, but generates less overhead. The overall jitter and end to end delay of sending packets in network is reduced.

We present the design and implementation of a shortest path tree based, energy efficient data collection wireless sensor network to sense various parameters in an agricultural farm using in-house developed low cost sensors. Nodes follow a synchronized, periodic sleep-wake up schedule to maximize the lifetime of the network. The implemented network consists of 24 sensor nodes in a 3 acre maize farm and its performance is captured by 7 snooper nodes for different data collection intervals: 10 minutes, 1 hour and 3 hours. The almost static nature of wireless links in the farm motivated us to use the same tree for a long data collection period(3 days). The imbalance in energy consumption across nodes is observed to be very small and the network architecture uses easy-to-implement protocols to perform different network activities including handling of node failures. We present the results and analysis of extensive tests conducted on our implementation, which provide significant insights.

We live in an era where typical measures towards the mitigation of environmental degradation follow the identification and recording of natural parameters closely associated with it. In addition, current scientific knowledge on the one hand may be applied to minimize the environmental impact of anthropogenic activities, whereas informatics on the other, playing a key role in this ecosystem, do offer new ways of implementing complex scientific processes regarding the collection, aggregation and analysis of data concerning environmental parameters. Furthermore, another related aspect to consider is the fact that almost all relevant data recordings are influenced by their given spatial characteristics. Taking all aforementioned inputs into account, managing such a great amount of complex and remote data requires specific digital structures; these structures are typically deployed over the Web on an attempt to capitalize existing open software platforms and modern developments of hardware technology. In this paper we present an effort to provide a technical solution based on sensing devices that are based on the well-known Arduino platform and operate continuously for gathering and transmitting of environmental state information. Controls, user interface and extensions of the proposed project rely on the Android mobile device platform (both from the software and hardware side). Finally, a crucial novel aspect of our work is the fact that all herein gathered data carry spatial information, which is rather fundamental for the successful correlation between pollutants and their place of origin. The latter is implemented by an interactive Web GIS platform operating oversight in situ and on a timeline basis.

Virtualization is foundational for applying both cloud computing and big data. It provides the basis for many platform attributes required to access, store, analyze, and manage the distributed computing components in big data environments. Virtualization also able to use in a wireless sensor network in Agriculture field. WSNs emerging approach in commercial applications like Healthcare, agriculture, Industries. Virtualization in sensor network offers more flexibility, cost, effective solution; promote diversity, security, and manageability. In this chapter describes WSNs in agriculture domain, issues, challenges, etc. Also describes virtualization technology, techniques, and tools.

To enhance productivity of farms there is need to follow mantra by Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) i.e. “Save & Grow”. Save and Grow directs towards Precision Agriculture (PA) for sustainable crop production intensification. There is challenge to establish information communication technology (ICT) technologies in fields and remote areas. Proposed system is novel platform to establish wireless sensor network (WSN) to execute PA overcoming the challenge to set up wireless sensor and energy efficient network at farms. Hybrid network of free space optics (FSO) and radio frequency (RF) connectivity and use of solar at farms and base station / control station makes it energy efficient. License free, high bandwidth FSO technology enables multimedia data exchange thus opening gate for many applications. Hybrid Hexagonal Positioning (HHP) for sensor nodes has achieved better link utilization compared to other topologies saving energy and increasing lifetime of sensor node and network. Overall energy efficient, centralized, environment friendly system allows cost effective solution to farmers. A village centric model is presented to define applicability of proposed solution.

This paper reduces the soil pollutions and health effects in precision agriculture by introducing soft computing algorithm. Using the fuzzy based rule is used to provide the correct quantities of fertilizers (NPK) Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P) and Potassium (K) to the horticultural crops to improve the productivity.The proposed fuzzy system, will recommend the needed fertilizers (NPK) to accomplish best crop production. Effective application of the correct quantities of fertilizers (NPK) is an important portion of achieving cost-effective yields.This fuzzy system will be useful in two ways, Firstly receiving money-making crop is one main objective keeping in mind by applying fertilizers (NPK) in an effective manner without overdosing. Secondly applying ineffective fertilizers (NPK) to crop may affect yield of crop and soil respectively. So the earnings prospective for farmers depend on producing better yield per acre to keep production costs below the export price.

This paper proposes a three-tiered network architecture to support precision farming applications over large cultivated fields. The hybrid network combines IEEE 802.15.4 Wireless Sensor Networks, operating in a multichannel mode, with Switched Ethernet. The network design has to fulfill several objectives, such as, achieving a tradeoff between energy saving for battery-operated devices and timeliness of precision farming applications over large areas, while providing scalability, robustness and cost efficiency. The work presented in the paper is based on real-world specifications provided by end users, i.e. qualified farmers, during a comprehensive investigation and requirement analysis phase. The paper first discusses the constraints that drive the network design and then presents the three-tiered architecture. Finally, the performance of the network, obtained through OMNeT++ simulations, are discussed.

This paper presents the development of an Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS) based on Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) and a simulation procedure, using Matlab® and Opnet® platforms. Furthermore, a new mathematical model handling the spatial distribution of water evaporation is proposed, which is applied to furrow and center pivot irrigation systems. This integrated system is appropriate for calculating the Irrigation Scheduling (IS) during the crop growth stages, which in turn leads to a maximized crop production. The objective of this research is twofold; namely, to increase the performance in water management as well as increase the crop production and ultimately provide a useful tool for the agriculture scientists and farmers. Experimental results showed that applying this IDSS has the potential to make significant contributions to the Precision Agriculture (PA) field and ultimately lead to product quality and environmental gains.

This paper presents the design of a shortest path tree based data collection wireless sensor network to sense soil moisture, soil temperature and relative humidity. Each node in the network follows a synchronized, periodic sleep - wake up schedule in order to maximize the lifetime of the network. The paper also demonstrates the implementation of a cluster based sensor network consisting of 10 nodes grouped as 3 clusters which collects and sends sensed data to a base station (here laptop) through a sink node. Data processing and presentation on the laptop is achieved using custom designed graphical user interface (GUI) in MATLAB. Nodes are kept approximately 8m apart covering an area of 400 m2. The implemented sensor network features using in house developed, low cost dual probe heat pulse (DPHP) soil moisture sensor, soil temperature sensor and energy efficient wireless transmission using clustering architecture for agricultural application. Field testing for 20% moisture level is demonstrated while feasibility of measuring the moisture levels from 0% to 40% is established from lab experiments.

This paper presents the design and implementation of a wireless sensor network (WSN) for agricultural monitoring applications using a multi-hop tree based architecture. Each sensor node is equipped with different sensors such as soil moisture (custom built), atmospheric temperature and relative humidity sensors. The nodes use TelosB modules for wireless communication. The implemented testbed consists of 20 nodes covering an area of $120 m \times 150 m$. Each node reported its sensor data at every 1 hour interval to the base station along the data collection tree following a time synchronized periodic sleep wake-up schedule. The maximum depth of the constructed data collection tree was observed as 5 hops in the implemented network. The performance of the in-house developed soil moisture sensors are evaluated through the implemented WSN and the difference between the measured soil moisture and the commercial time domain reflectrometry is observed as ±3%.

This paper presents the IHPNode platform in the context of precision farming (or Agriculture 4.0). This platform is an experimental platform for wireless sensor network (WSN) applications and can be used in precision farming as one of the most promising WSN application areas. The paper presents the requirements of the applications, the features of the IHPNode platform, as well as, the planned future improvements.

This paper focuses on literature of the development of a wireless sensor network on agricultural environment to monitor environmental conditions and deduce the appropriate environmental parameters required for the high yield of crop production on a given farmland. Among the different technologies for crop monitoring, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are recognized as a powerful one to collect and process data in the agricultural domain with low-cost and low-energy consumption. Agriculture and farming is one of the industries which have recently diverted their attention to WSN, seeking this cost effective technology to improve its production and enhance agriculture yield standard. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have attracted much attention in recent years.

This paper demonstrates how an irrigation management system (IMS) can practically be implemented by deploying a wireless sensor network (WSN). Specifically, the paper describes an IMS which was set up in Manja township, city of Blantyre. Deployment of IMS in rural areas of developing countries like Malawi is a challenge as grid power is scarce. For the system to be self-sustained in terms of power, the study used solar photovoltaic and rechargeable batteries to power all electrical devices. The system incorporated a remote monitoring mechanism through a General Packet Radio Service modem to report soil temperature, soil moisture, WSN link performance, and photovoltaic power levels. Irrigation valves were activated to water the field. Preliminary results in this study have revealed a number of engineering weaknesses of deploying such a system. Nevertheless, the paper has highlighted areas of improvement to develop a robust, fully automated, solar-powered, and low-cost IMS to suit the socioeconomic conditions of small scale farmers in developing countries.

This paper demonstrates how an Irrigation Management System (IMS) can practically be implemented by successfully deploying a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). Specifically, the paper describes an IMS which was set up in Manja Township, City of Blantyre based on an advanced irrigation scheduling technique. Since the system had to be self-sustained in terms of power, which is a challenge for deployment in rural areas of developing countries like Malawi where grid power supply is scarce, we used solar Photovoltaic (PV) and rechargeable batteries to power all electrical devices in this system. The system incorporated a remote monitoring mechanism through a General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) modem to report soil temperature, soil moisture, WSN link performance and PV power levels. Irrigation valves were activated to water the field. Our preliminary results have revealed engineering weakness of deploying such a system. Nevertheless, the paper shows that it is possible to develop a robust, fully-automated, solar powered, and low cost IMS to suit the socio-economic conditions of small scale farmers in developing countries.