相关论文
1977
Variability and Constraint in Acquired Dyslexia

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the psycholinguistic nature of dyslexic errors and the additional dysphasic symptoms that appear to accompany the component features of an error taxonomy. A distinction has traditionally been made between pure word-blindness—attributed to a disconnection between visual cortex and language areas—and dyslexia accompanied by dysgraphia, usually in the setting of a more generalized disturbance of language functions. It has been suggested that patients with pure or agnosic alexia tend to be better at letter-naming than word-reading, whereas the converse pattern is associated with aphasic dyslexia. It appears that the acquired disorders of reading can be placed on a continuum according to the extent and severity of the associated symptoms of dysphasia. Furthermore, a number of variables have to be taken into account when describing the restitution or improvement of language skills. These include the etiology and natural history of the disease, the underlying anatomophysiological basis, and the changing pattern of linguistic error. Remedial programs and prognosis are dependent on these and other critical factors.

2007
Error-Resilient Coding and Decoding Strategies for Video Communication

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the error-resilient coding and decoding strategies for video communication. It is important to understand that video can benefit significantly if the transmitter can be sure that the video will be delivered reliably. Typically, the introduction of error-resilience tools in the video coding layer is very costly in terms of compression efficiency. The overhead is in general much better spent in lower layers of the protocol stack. Nevertheless, there exist applications in which errors are inevitable. If the video encoder is not aware of distortions on the transmission link, this in general leads to dramatic quality degradations due to instantaneous errors as well as spatial-temporal error propagation. Whereas the effect of instantaneous errors can be decreased by the use of specific packetization modes, the usually more severe effect of error propagation can be reduced by the application of more frequent intra-information, interactive error control, or a combination of both.

1996 - International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos
PERCEPTION OF MUSIC AND DIMENSIONAL COMPLEXITY OF BRAIN ACTIVITY

The nonlinear resonance hypothesis of music perception was tested in an experiment comparing a group of musically sophisticated and a group of less sophisticated subjects. The prediction that weakly chaotic music entrains less complex brain wave (EEG) oscillations at the prefrontal cortex was confirmed by using a correlational dimension algorithm. Strongly chaotic (stochastic) and periodic music both stimulated higher brain wave complexity. More sophisticated subjects who prefer classical music showed higher EEG dimensions while less sophisticated subjects responded with a drop in brain wave complexity to rhythmical weakly chaotic music. Subjects ratings of perceived complexity of the musical pieces followed mathematical (objective) structure of the music and did not reflect the changes in brain wave complexity. The results are interpreted in the context of an associated (Hebbian) network theory of nonlinear brain dynamics.

1983
A Multiphase Mixture Theory for Fluid-Particle Flows

Publisher Summary This chapter presents a theory for suspension of particles in fluids based on the continuum theory of multiphase mixtures and it describes the application of the continuum mixture theory to the description of fluid–particle flows. The maximum concentration of particles can occur off the axis of symmetry because of a balance between lift forces and dynamic pressure forces. This provides a possible explanation of the Segre–Silberberg effect in the context of mixture theory. The classical theory of translational Brownian motion is concerned with the random migration of isolated colloidal particles in a suspending fluid. This random motion is a result of the collisions between the particles and the molecules of the fluid, which are undergoing thermal fluctuations. For neutrally buoyant particles, the particle flux, because of the fluctuating velocity field, is the same as that which can be produced by thermodynamic force acting on each particle. This thermodynamic force is equal to the gradient of the chemical potential of the particles.

1973 - Studies in logic and the foundations of mathematics
The Meaning of Theoretical Terms: A Critique of the Standard Empiricist Construal

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses a general characterization of scientific theories that has been developed, with certain individual differences, by various thinkers sharing a broadly empiricist outlook and a precise logicoanalytical approach to problems in the philosophy of science. This characterization is often referred to as the standard construal, or the standard analysis, of scientific theories. A scientific theory usually accounts for a class of empirical phenomena by positing particular kinds of entities and processes, which are taken to be governed by specified laws of their own, and which are, intuitively speaking, farther removed from the realm of our everyday experience than are the phenomena the theory is to explain. In characterizing those entities and processes, a theory typically employs a set of new terms, which are said to form its theoretical vocabulary. They are new in the sense that they are not among those already in use in the given discipline; in particular, they do not occur in the vocabulary used to describe the phenomena to be explained.

1973
Economic Growth and Its Discontents

Publisher Summary This chapter reviews the concept of economic growth and the growing sense of discontentment with it. Economic growth has been the prime goal of economic policy for a long time, and it has also been the prime criterion for judging the success of the economic performance of a country. An increase in national product per head is supposed to mean an increase in economic welfare; it does not necessarily mean an increase in people's total welfare. Economists have relied, however, on a practical judgment, namely, that a change in economic welfare implies a change in total welfare in the same direction, if not in the same degree. It has been noted that in developed countries in the west, there's a growing disenchantment with the current notion of economic development. Substantial reasons for this sense of disappointment and disenchantment are the impact of growth on the environment and the ability of developed countries to sustain growing populations in the face of declining sources of primary products and of mounting wastes. In the West, poverty is observed to be as widespread as are the social problems associated with it, crime, drug addiction, and the rest, at least as intense as they are. Also, there is a growing decline in happiness even amongst the populace who are enjoying the luxuries available in the developed countries of the west.

1992 - Annals of discrete mathematics
The Weight of a Graph

Publisher Summary This chapter describes the weight of a graph. The weight w(E) of an edge E in a multigraph G is the sum of the degrees of its end vertices; and if G is a pseudograph and E is a loop, then w(E) is defined as twice the degree of its unique end vertex. The weight w(G) of a pseudograph G is defined as min{w(E); EG}.The pseudograph G triangulates the closed 2-manifold Sg, of genus g if G dissects Sg, into regions such that each region has an interior homeomorphic to an open disc, and every region meets three different regions along three edges. Kotzig's Theorem states that the weight of every graph that triangulates the sphere S0 is at most 13, and 13 is the best possible bound. Grunbaum and G. Shephard proved that every graph triangulating the torus S1 contains an edge of weight at most 15, and 15 is the best possible bound.

2018 - Frontiers in Robotics and AI
The Active Inference Approach to Ecological Perception: General Information Dynamics for Natural and Artificial Embodied Cognition

The emerging neurocomputational vision of humans as embodied, ecologically embedded, social agents—who shape and are shaped by their environment—offers a golden opportunity to revisit and revise ideas about the physical and information-theoretic underpinnings of life, mind, and consciousness itself. In particular, the active inference framework (AIF) makes it possible to bridge connections from computational neuroscience and robotics/AI to ecological psychology and phenomenology, revealing common underpinnings and overcoming key limitations. AIF opposes the mechanistic to the reductive, while staying fully grounded in a naturalistic and information-theoretic foundation, using the principle of free energy minimization. The latter provides a theoretical basis for a unified treatment of particles, organisms, and interactive machines, spanning from the inorganic to organic, non-life to life, and natural to artificial agents. We provide a brief introduction to AIF, then explore its implications for evolutionary theory, ecological psychology, embodied phenomenology, and robotics/AI research. We conclude the paper by considering implications for machine consciousness.

1990
Going Up a Blind Alley: Conflating Conversation Analysis and Computational Modelling

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the desirability of developing computational models of conversational phenomena, and the supportive role given to conversation analysis (CA) in the development of such models. The arguments presented in this chapter are not an attempt to restrict the range of creative resources that software designers might turn to for inspiration. In particular, it is implicitly endorsed in the attempts to develop descriptively adequate models of conversation for use in computer systems, and explicitly endorsed when it is argued that by providing a simulacrum of conversation one has naturally occurring conversation between computers and humans. The attraction of CA for people who want to develop rules of conversational organization that can be used to program computers is two-fold: (1) CA might seem to provide a ready-made package of conversational rules that they can use or adapt for their purposes; and (2) their models may be authorized by appealing to CA. However, CA is used to authorize computational models of conversation that misrepresent the details of how conversation works.

1983 - Advances in Geophysics
Carbon Dioxide and Climatic Change

Publisher Summary This chapter reviews some of the carbon dioxide–climate sensitivity studies to analyze effect of carbon dioxide on climate. The carbon dioxide-induced change of the atmospheric temperature is analyzed based upon the results from radiative, convective models of the atmospheric-surface system. A general circulation model of climate is elaborated as a prognostic system of equations representing the physical and dynamical processes, which control climate. A brief description of climate as simulated by the Manabe–Stouffer model is presented. The climatic effect of the increase in carbon dioxide concentration is discussed based upon analysis of the differences between the two statistically stationary states which emerge from the 1×CO 2 and 4×CO 2 experiments. The distribution of the carbon dioxide-induced change in a global model climate is discussed. The latitudinal and seasonal variation of the signal-to-noise ratio for the carbon dioxide-induced change of zonal mean surface air temperature over continents is also illustrated.

1973
STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS IN CHILDREN'S UTTERANCES: SYNTACTIC OR SEMANTIC?1

Publisher Summary This chapter reviews the structural relationship between syntactic and semantic in children's utterances. According to the view of language acquisition, the linguistic knowledge that lies behind children's initial attempts at word combining may not and need not include information about the basic grammatical relations or the constituent structure they entail. There is, in any event, no compelling evidence as yet that it does. The characteristics of cross-linguistic data suggest the alternative view that children launch their syntactic careers by learning simple order rules for combining words, which, in their understanding, perform semantic functions such as agent, action, and object acted upon, or perhaps other even less abstract semantic functions. Through additional linguistic experience, children may begin to recognize similarities in the way different semantic concepts are formally dealt with and to gradually reorganize their knowledge according to the more abstract grammatical relationships, which are functional in the particular language they are learning.

1972
Modeling Theory: Some Traditions, Trends, and Disputes

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the limitations ascribed to modeling in the experimental methodology rather than in the phenomenon itself. Several experiments are conducted requiring a higher-order form of modeling. These studies use a paradigm in which persons display a consistent style of behavior to diverse stimuli; tests for generalized modeling effects are subsequently conducted by different experimenters in different social settings with the models absent and with different stimulus items. The results disclose that observers respond to new stimulus situations in a manner consistent with the models' dispositions even though subjects had never observed the models responding to these particular stimuli. It is shown that modeling influences effect broader and more complex psychological changes than is commonly assumed. With few exceptions, the experiments conducted in the laboratory use a nonresponse acquisition procedure in which a person simply observes a model's behavior; however, otherwise the person exhibits neither overt responses nor is administered any reinforcing stimuli during the acquisition period. As in this mode of response acquisition, observers can learn the modeled responses only in representational forms, the modeling paradigm provides an interesting means of studying symbolic processes and their performance guiding functions.

1995 - Advances in Human Factors\/ergonomics
Human-Computer Interaction Standards

Publisher Summary This chapter presents human-computer interaction (HCI) standards. Standard user interfaces provide the benefit of consistency; they become out of date as technology changes, and are usually only appropriate for limited types of users and tasks. Thus most work on international standards for HCI has not been about precise specification, but instead has concentrated on the principles that need to be applied in order to produce an interface, which meets user and task needs. These standards broadly fall into two categories—one is a top-down approach, which is concerned with usability as a broad quality objective: the ability to use a product for its intended purpose. The other is a product-oriented bottom-up view, which is concerned with aspects of the interface that make a system easier to use. The broad quality view originates from human factors, and standards of this type are applicable in the broad context of design and quality objectives. The product-oriented view concentrates on the design of specific attributes, and relates more closely to the needs of the interface designer and the role of usability in software engineering.

2006 - Audiology and Neurotology
Music Perception with Cochlear Implants and Residual Hearing

Aim: The aims of this study were to examine the music perception abilities of Cochlear Nucleus Hybrid (acoustic plus electric stimulation) cochlear implant (CI) recipients and to compare their performance with that of normal-hearing (NH) adults and CI recipients using conventional long-electrode (LE) devices (Advanced Bionics: 90K, Clarion, CIIHF; Cochlear Corporation: CI24M, CI22, Contour; Ineraid). Hybrid CI recipients were compared with NH adults and LE CI recipients on recognition of (a) real-world melodies and (b) musical instruments. Patients and Methods: We tested 4 Hybrid CI recipients, 17 NH adults, and 39 LE CI recipients on open-set recognition of real-world songs presented with and without lyrics. We also tested 14 Hybrid CI recipients, 21 NH adults, and 174 LE CI recipients on closed-set recognition of 8 musical instruments playing a 7-note phrase. Results: On recognition of real-world songs, both the Hybrid recipients and NH listeners were significantly more accurate (p < 0.0001) than the LE CI recipients in the no lyrics condition, which required reliance on musical cues only. The LE group was significantly less accurate than either the Hybrid or NH group (p < 0.0001) on instrument recognition for low and high frequency ranges. Conclusions: These results, while preliminary in nature, suggest that preservation of low-frequency acoustic hearing is important for perception of real-world musical stimuli.

1974 - Review of Educational Research
Incentives for Innovation in the Public Schools1

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses some propositions about the structure and incentive systems of public schools as they relate to the adoption of innovations and to their implementation in the schools. These propositions may have certain systematic implications for educational research and development (R&D) policy and also for such broader questions as how to implement planned change in bureaucracies. A major focus of R&D policy should be, through experimentation and through incentives that encourage new patterns of institutional behavior, and to encourage a long-overdue diversity of approaches to schooling. Even with more sophisticated approaches to R&D management and to the realities of implementation, the task will be long, costly, and difficult. In the current state of knowledge, this process must be justified primarily on the grounds that an educational system that develops effective mechanisms for innovation is more likely to respond to changing social needs than one that is primarily centered on preserving the existing institutional order.

1983
A Procedure for Decision Making Using Tailored Testing

Publisher Summary This chapter presents a decision procedure that operates sequentially and can easily be applied to tailored testing without loss of any of the elegance and mathematical sophistication of the examination procedures. In applying the decision procedure, two specific item response theory (IRT) models are used: the one- and three-parameter logistic models. Although any other IRT model could just as easily have been used, these models were selected because of their frequent appearance in the research literature and because of the existence of readily available calibration programs and tailored testing programs. The purposes of this research were (1) to obtain information on how the sequential probability ratio test (SPRT) procedure functioned when items were not randomly sampled from the item pool; (2) to gain experience in selecting the bounds of the indifference region; and (3) to obtain information on the effects of guessing on the accuracy of classification when the one-parameter logistic model was used. To determine the effects of these variables, the computation of the SPRT was programmed into both the one- and three-parameter logistic tailored testing procedures that were operational at the University of Missouri—Columbia.

1995 - Advances in protein chemistry
Enthalpic contribution to protein stability: insights from atom-based calculations and statistical mechanics.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses published analyses of protein stability based on model compound data and outlines the assumptions that have been made. The enthalpy of protein folding is considered and a thermodynamic cycle is used to relate the measurements to quantities that can be calculated. The focus is on the enthalpy of denaturation because it is most directly accessible to calculations. The experiments and analysis of Privalov and co-workers, particularly which of Makhatadze and Privalov are considered in detail because these measurements provide the most complete results on the thermodynamics of proteins. The estimates of internal van der Waals and hydrogen bonding contributions to the enthalpy difference between the native and denatured states of the protein are compared with the calculations of the van der Waals and electrostatic terms (the latter includes hydrogen bonding) from an atom-based model. Statistical mechanical calculations and molecular dynamics simulations are used to estimate the difference in solvation enthalpy, as well as the free energy, of the native and unfolded states.

2014 - Cognitive science
Interactive Activation and Mutual Constraint Satisfaction in Perception and Cognition

In a seminal 1977 article, Rumelhart argued that perception required the simultaneous use of multiple sources of information, allowing perceivers to optimally interpret sensory information at many levels of representation in real time as information arrives. Building on Rumelhart's arguments, we present the Interactive Activation hypothesis-the idea that the mechanism used in perception and comprehension to achieve these feats exploits an interactive activation process implemented through the bidirectional propagation of activation among simple processing units. We then examine the interactive activation model of letter and word perception and the TRACE model of speech perception, as early attempts to explore this hypothesis, and review the experimental evidence relevant to their assumptions and predictions. We consider how well these models address the computational challenge posed by the problem of perception, and we consider how consistent they are with evidence from behavioral experiments. We examine empirical and theoretical controversies surrounding the idea of interactive processing, including a controversy that swirls around the relationship between interactive computation and optimal Bayesian inference. Some of the implementation details of early versions of interactive activation models caused deviation from optimality and from aspects of human performance data. More recent versions of these models, however, overcome these deficiencies. Among these is a model called the multinomial interactive activation model, which explicitly links interactive activation and Bayesian computations. We also review evidence from neurophysiological and neuroimaging studies supporting the view that interactive processing is a characteristic of the perceptual processing machinery in the brain. In sum, we argue that a computational analysis, as well as behavioral and neuroscience evidence, all support the Interactive Activation hypothesis. The evidence suggests that contemporary versions of models based on the idea of interactive activation continue to provide a basis for efforts to achieve a fuller understanding of the process of perception.

2015 - Cerebral Cortex (New York, NY)
Functional Organization of Social Perception and Cognition in the Superior Temporal Sulcus

The superior temporal sulcus (STS) is considered a hub for social perception and cognition, including the perception of faces and human motion, as well as understanding others' actions, mental states, and language. However, the functional organization of the STS remains debated: Is this broad region composed of multiple functionally distinct modules, each specialized for a different process, or are STS subregions multifunctional, contributing to multiple processes? Is the STS spatially organized, and if so, what are the dominant features of this organization? We address these questions by measuring STS responses to a range of social and linguistic stimuli in the same set of human participants, using fMRI. We find a number of STS subregions that respond selectively to certain types of social input, organized along a posterior-to-anterior axis. We also identify regions of overlapping response to multiple contrasts, including regions responsive to both language and theory of mind, faces and voices, and faces and biological motion. Thus, the human STS contains both relatively domain-specific areas, and regions that respond to multiple types of social information.

1988 - Psychological review
The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: a construction-integration model.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses data concerning the time course of word identification in a discourse context. A simulation of arithmetic word-problem understanding provides a plausible account for some well-known phenomena. The current theories use representations with several mutually constraining layers. There is typically a linguistic level of representation, conceptual levels to represent both the local and global meaning and structure of a text, and a level at which the text itself has lost its individuality and its information content. Knowledge provides part of the context within which a discourse interpreted. The integration phase is the price the model pays for the necessary flexibility in the construction process.

The Development of Music Perception and Cognition

W. Jay Dowling
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W. Dowling

Abstract:Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the development of music perception and cognition. An adult listening attentively to a piece of music and understanding it performs an enormous amount of information processing very rapidly. Most of this processing is carried out automatically below the level of conscious analysis, because there is no time for reflective thought on each detail as the piece steadily progresses. This process is closely parallel to what happens when a native speaker of a language listens to and understands a sentence. A point to be emphasized is the ease and rapidity with which adults perform complex cognitive tasks in domains of speech and music familiar to them, and the degree to which that facility depends on prior experience. The implicit knowledge of adults is built on elements present even in infancy and the importance of melodic and rhythmic contours, the use of discrete, steady pitch levels, the organization of rhythmic patterns into a steady beat and an overlay of more complicated rhythms, and octave equivalence. These elements provide the groundwork for perceptual learning and acculturation throughout life to build upon.

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