相关论文
1996 - Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
Identifying thresholds for classifying childhood psychiatric disorder: issues and prospects.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate empirically the implications of choosing different thresholds to classify conduct disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder for estimating prevalence, test-retest reliability of measurement, and informant (parent/teacher) agreement and for evaluating comorbidity and associated features of disorder. METHOD Data for the study came from problem checklist assessments done by parents and teachers of children aged 6 to 16 years (N = 1,229) selected with known probability from a general population sample and from structured interviews obtained in a stratified, random subsample (n = 251). RESULTS Estimates varied widely depending on the rationale used to set thresholds. Percent prevalence went from 0.1 to 39.2; kappa estimates of test-retest reliability went from .19 to .82. Parent-teacher agreement based on kappa went from .0 to .38. Relative odds between disorder and associated features varied twofold. CONCLUSION Use of different rationales to set thresholds for classifying childhood psychiatric disorder in the general population has profound implications for what we learn about the epidemiology of childhood disorder.

1993 - Journal of abnormal psychology
Limits of operationalization: a critique of Spitzer and Endicott's (1978) proposed operational criteria for mental disorder.

Spitzer and Endicott (1978) proposed an operational definition of mental disorder that is a more rigorous version of the brief definitions that appeared in the 3rd and revised 3rd editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The heart of their proposal is a translation of the concept of dysfunction into operational terms. I argue that their definition fails to capture the concept of dysfunction and is subject to many counterexamples. I use my harmful dysfunction account of disorder (Wakefield, 1992a, 1992b), which interprets dysfunction in evolutionary terms, to explain both the appeal and the problems of Spitzer and Endicott's definition and to provide support for the harmful dysfunction view. I conclude that the failure of Spitzer and Endicott's sophisticated attempt at operationalization indicates that nonoperational definitions that use functional concepts must play a role in formulating valid diagnostic criteria.

1994 - Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
"I only read about myself on bathroom walls": the need for research on the mental health of lesbians and gay men.

The very recent history of pathologizing homosexuality still has a strong impact on the public in general and mental health professionals in particular. In contrast to the early research on sexual reorientation of lesbians and gay men, there is relatively little empirical research on the mental health issues of lesbians and gay men. Whether researchers choose to define sexual orientation by sexual behavior, self-definition, or membership in lesbian and gay community groups will have an impact on the results. Research on mental health issues that include lesbians, gay men, and heterosexual women and men would allow an examination of the relative salience of gender versus sexual orientation. Finally, the experiences of lesbians and gay men in society may place them at increased risk for some mental health problems and may protect them from other mental health problems.

1994 - The Journal of family practice
The relationship of women's postpartum mental health to employment, childbirth, and social support.

BACKGROUND This study was conducted to examine changes in women's mental health over the first postpartum year and factors that are associated with mental health. METHODS Participants included women who were married, employed, English-speaking, and giving birth to their first child at one of two hospitals in St Paul, Minnesota. Women who were eligible and willing to participate were mailed questionnaires at 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months postpartum. RESULTS There were significant changes in mothers' general mental health, depression, and anxiety over the first postpartum year (P < or = .01), with least favorable outcomes at 1 month and most favorable outcomes at 12 months postpartum. Poor mental health was related to work factors, such as longer work hours and maternity leave of less than 24 weeks, and to variables often associated with recent childbirth, such as maternal fatigue, loss of sleep, concerns about appearance, and infant illnesses. In addition, postpartum symptoms were predicted by physical illness, previous mental problems, poor general health, poor social support, fewer recreational activities, young age, and low income (R2 = 37% to 57%). CONCLUSIONS In this select group of women, postpartum mental health was found to be least favorable 1 month after delivery and related to factors associated with employment, recent delivery, and level of social support.

2011 - The Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry
Epidemiology of Anxiety Disorders in the Australian General Population: Findings of the 2007 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing

Objective: The aims of this study were to report 12-month and lifetime prevalence for anxiety disorders in the Australian general population, identify sociodemographic and clinical correlates of anxiety disorders, and report the rates of comorbidity among anxiety, affective, and substance use disorders across the lifespan. Method: The 2007 National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing was a nationally representative, face-to-face household survey of 8841 (60% response rate) community residents aged between 16 and 85 years. Diagnoses for anxiety, affective and substance use disorders were made according to the DSM-IV using the World Mental Health Survey Initiative version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Results: 12-month and lifetime prevalence of anxiety disorders were 11.8% and 20.0%, respectively. Anxiety disorders had a similar median age of onset (19 years) compared to substance use disorders (20 years), but earlier than affective disorders (34 years). Social phobia was the earliest onset anxiety disorder (median 13 years), with generalized anxiety disorder the latest (median 33 years). Significant correlates of the presence of anxiety disorders included being female, single, not in the labour force, in the middle age groups, not having post-graduate qualifications, having a comorbid physical condition, and having a family history of mental disorders. Being in the oldest age ranges and being born in another non-English speaking country were associated with lower odds of having an anxiety disorder. Body mass index was not associated with the presence of an anxiety disorder. Anxiety disorders were highly comorbid, particularly with major depression, dysthymia, and alcohol dependence. Comorbidity with substance use disorders reduced with age. Comorbidity with affective disorders was high across the lifespan. Conclusions: Anxiety disorders are common, can have an early onset, and are highly comorbid. Prevention, early detection, and treatment of anxiety disorders should be a priority.

1978 - Epilepsia
Convulsive Disorders in the First Year of Life: Neurological and Mental Outcome and Mortality

Mortality and neurological and mental outcome were studied in infants 28 days to 1 year of age with afebrile seizures not due to an acute postnatal injury. Cases were divided into four eizure types: infantile spasms; status epilep‐ticus; and “others” (patients without spasms or status), generalized and partial. Mortality was studied in 334 cases, mental and neurological prognosis in 313 infants followed 1 year or more. Globally the prognosis was very poor even outside cases of infantile spasms. Mortality was higher and mental and neurological sequelae were more common in symptomatic than in cryptogenic cases. The highest mortality and greatest number of neurological defects were in status epilepticus and in “others” partial groups. Severely retarded subjects were more common in infantile spasms and “others” partial. The proportion of mentally normal patients, however, was no different according to ictal type. Mental and neurological prognosis was less unfavorable when the first seizure occurred at or over 6 months. A family history of epilepsy or febrile convulsions (21% of the cases in the whole series) was more common in the “others” subgroups, especially in the cryptogenic “others”(429c). The less unfavorable outcome obtained in cryptogenic “others” generalized with a positive family history.

2005 - The American journal of psychiatry
A 3-year panel study of mental disorders among adolescents in Taiwan.

OBJECTIVE This study investigated the prevalence and changing trends of mental disorders and the effects of gender and urbanization among adolescents in Taiwan. METHOD A random sample of seventh-grade students (N=1,070) was recruited from one urban and one rural junior high school in which 1,051 (98.2%) and 1,035 (96.7%) were reassessed in the second and third years, respectively. A two-stage case identification was conducted by mental health professionals with the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Epidemiologic Version, supplemented by information from the Child Behavior Checklist. RESULTS The weighted 3-month prevalence rates across the 3 consecutive years for overall psychiatric disorders were 20.3%, 22.7%, and 14.8%, respectively. The most prevalent psychiatric condition was attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the first 2 years and substance use disorders in the third. During the 3 years, the rates for ADHD, specific phobia, and social phobia decreased, and the rates for major depression and substance use disorders, conversely, increased. Although conduct disorder, ADHD, and substance use disorders were more prevalent among boys, the rates for major depression, social phobia, specific phobia, and adjustment disorder were higher among girls. Rural adolescents had higher rates of conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and substance use disorders than their urban counterparts. CONCLUSIONS Our findings are similar to those of previous studies among adolescents in prevalence rates, changing trends of most mental disorders, and gender effects. The differential changing trends in various diagnostic groups may imply the importance of specific measures for prevention during adolescence.

2000 - Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
Mothers' mental illness and child behavior problems: cause-effect association or observation bias?

OBJECTIVE A number of studies have consistently found that a mother's mental health (particularly her level of depression) is a strong predictor of mental health problems experienced by her child(ren). However, the validity of this finding is in doubt because the majority of these studies have relied on maternal reports as indicators of children's behavior. METHOD This prospective, longitudinal study examines data on the mental health of the mother from prior to the birth of her child to when the child reaches 14 years of age. Child behavior is measured at 14 years of age using reports from mother and child. Mother and child responses are compared to provide an indication of the possible magnitude of maternal observation bias in the reporting of child behavior problems. RESULTS Anxious and/or depressed mothers tend to report more cases of child behavior problems than do their mentally healthy counterparts or children themselves. Differences between mothers and youths in reporting behavior problems appear to be related to the mothers' mental health. CONCLUSIONS Current maternal mental health impairment appears to have a substantial effect on the reporting of child behavior problems by the mother, thereby raising questions about the validity of reports of child behavior by persons who are currently emotionally distressed.

2013 - Science
Repeated Cortico-Striatal Stimulation Generates Persistent OCD-Like Behavior

What Causes Obsessive Compulsive Disorder? Obsessive compulsive disorder is a severe, chronic mental illness that affects millions of individuals. However, the mechanisms underlying this disease are still largely unknown (see the Perspective by Rauch and Carlezon Jr.). Ahmari et al. (p. 1234) stimulated glutamatergic pathways between the orbitofrontal cortex and the ventromedial striatum and used grooming to assess obsessive compulsive behavior in mice. Repetitive stimulation over days triggered changes in the neuronal responses of the ventromedial striatum. Over time, the behavior of the animals became independent of stimulation and could be prevented by the antidepressant fluoxetine. Burguière et al. (p. 1243) investigated the neural basis of obsessive compulsive symptoms in a mutant mouse that showed excessive expression of a conditioned form of grooming. Hyperactivation of projections from the orbitofrontal cortex to the striatum increases repetitive grooming in mice. [Also see Perspective by Rauch and Carlezon] Although cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuit dysregulation is correlated with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), causation cannot be tested in humans. We used optogenetics in mice to simulate CSTC hyperactivation observed in OCD patients. Whereas acute orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)–ventromedial striatum (VMS) stimulation did not produce repetitive behaviors, repeated hyperactivation over multiple days generated a progressive increase in grooming, a mouse behavior related to OCD. Increased grooming persisted for 2 weeks after stimulation cessation. The grooming increase was temporally coupled with a progressive increase in light-evoked firing of postsynaptic VMS cells. Both increased grooming and evoked firing were reversed by chronic fluoxetine, a first-line OCD treatment. Brief but repeated episodes of abnormal circuit activity may thus set the stage for the development of persistent psychopathology.

2008 - Environmental Health Perspectives
The Effect of Heat Waves on Mental Health in a Temperate Australian City

Objective The goal of this study was to identify mental, behavioral, and cognitive disorders that may be triggered or exacerbated during heat waves, predisposing individuals to heat-related morbidity and mortality. Design Using health outcome data from Adelaide, South Australia, for 1993–2006, we estimated the effect of heat waves on hospital admissions and mortalities attributed to mental, behavioral, and cognitive disorders. We analyzed data using Poisson regression accounting for overdispersion and controlling for season and long-term trend, and we performed threshold analysis using hockey stick regression. Results Above a threshold of 26.7°C, we observed a positive association between ambient temperature and hospital admissions for mental and behavioral disorders. Compared with non–heat-wave periods, hospital admissions increased by 7.3% during heat waves. Specific illnesses for which admissions increased included organic illnesses, including symptomatic mental disorders; dementia; mood (affective) disorders; neurotic, stress related, and somatoform disorders; disorders of psychological development; and senility. Mortalities attributed to mental and behavioral disorders increased during heat waves in the 65- to 74-year age group and in persons with schizophrenia, schizotypal, and delusional disorders. Dementia deaths increased in those up to 65 years of age. Conclusion Our results suggest that episodes of extreme heat pose a salient risk to the health and well-being of the mentally ill. Relevance to Clinical or Professional Practice: Improvements in the management and care of the mentally ill need to be addressed to avoid an increase in psychiatric morbidity and mortality as heat waves become more frequent.

1988 - Psychosomatic medicine
Major depressive disorder predicts cardiac events in patients with coronary artery disease.

&NA; Fifty‐two patients undergoing cardiac catheterization and subsequently found to have significant coronary artery disease (CAD) were given structured psychiatric interviews before catheterization. Nine of these patients met criteria for major depressive disorder. All 52 patients were contacted 12 months after catheterization, and the occurrence of myocardial infarction, angioplasty, coronary bypass surgery and death was determined. Results of the study show that major depressive disorder was the best predictor of these major cardiac events during the 12 months following catheterization. The predictive effect was independent of the severity of CAD, left ventricular ejection fraction, and the presence of smoking. Furthermore, with the exception of smoking, there were no statistically significant differences between those patients with major depressive disorder and the remaining patients on any variable studied. The possible mechanisms relating major depressive disorder to subsequent cardiac events are discussed. It is concluded that major depressive disorder is an important independent risk factor for the occurrence of major cardiac events in patients with CAD.

2010 - Journal of clinical psychopharmacology
Medication Adherence in Outpatients With Severe Mental Disorders: Relation Between Self-Reports and Serum Level

Medication nonadherence in severe mental disorders is an important clinical issue, but estimates vary between studies. There is a need for valid self-reports for both research and clinical practice. This study examined the level of adherence to prescribed medication in outpatients with severe mental disorders and evaluated the validity of a simple self-report rating of adherence. From an ongoing study of severe mental disorders, 280 patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder who were prescribed psychopharmacological agents were included. We assessed adherence with serum concentration of medicines and tested the sensitivity and specificity of a simple self-report questionnaire for patients and compared with a report from health personnel. Adherence rate defined by serum concentrations within reference level was 61.6% in the total sample, 58.4% for schizophrenia and 66.3% for bipolar disorder. The patients' self-report scores overestimated adherence, but correlated significantly to health personnel scores (r = 0.50) and to serum concentration of medication (r = 0.52); the positive predictive value was 70%, and the negative predictive value was 91%. In this naturalistic sample, outpatients with severe mental disorders showed relatively good adherence to prescribed medication, and self-report questionnaires seem to be a valid method for measuring adherence.

2005 - BMC Medicine
Public beliefs about treatment and outcome of mental disorders: a comparison of Australia and Japan

BackgroundSurveys of the public in a number of countries have shown poor recognition of mental disorders and beliefs about treatment that often diverge from those of health professionals. This lack of mental health literacy can limit the optimal use of treatment services. Australia and Japan are countries with very different mental health care systems, with Japan emphasising hospital care and Australia more oriented to community care. Japan is also more collectivist and Australia more individualist in values. These differences might influence recognition of disorders and beliefs about treatment in the two countries.MethodsSurveys of the public were carried out in each country using as similar a methodology as feasible. In both countries, household interviews were carried out concerning beliefs in relation to one of four case vignettes, describing either depression, depression with suicidal thoughts, early schizophrenia or chronic schizophrenia. In Australia, the survey involved a national sample of 3998 adults aged 18 years or over. In Japan, the survey involved 2000 adults aged between 20 and 69 from 25 regional sites spread across the country.ResultsThe Japanese public were found to be more reluctant to use psychiatric labels, particularly for the depression cases. The Japanese were also more reluctant to discuss mental disorders with others outside the family. They had a strong belief in counsellors, but not in GPs. They generally believe in the benefits of treatment, but are not optimistic about full recovery. By contrast, Australians used psychiatric labels more often, particularly "depression". They were also more positive about the benefits of seeking professional help, but had a strong preference for lifestyle interventions and tended to be negative about some psychiatric medications. Australians were positive about both counsellors and GPs. Psychiatric hospitalization and ECT were seen negatively in both countries.ConclusionThere are some major differences between Australia and Japan in recognition of disorders and beliefs about treatment. Some of these may relate to the different health care systems, but the increasing openness about mental health in Australia is also likely to be an explanatory factor.

1999 - Journal of women's health
Symptom patterns of premenstrual dysphoric disorder as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV.

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder was included in an appendix of DSM-III-R (revised third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) and DSM-IV to facilitate systematic research. Items contained in its set of research criteria were considered tentative. Only one previous study of premenstrual symptoms specifically addressed symptoms of premenstrual dysphoric disorder, and it did not use DSM-IV criteria. In the present study, prospectively measured symptoms of 99 women were analyzed using exploratory principal components analysis with orthogonal rotation on all 24 items derived from the 11 symptoms listed in DSM-IV. Variation was found across phases of cycle and groups, with five factors predominating: (1) anger/irritability, (2) depressed mood, (3) anxiety/tension, (4) decreased energy and interest with physical symptoms, and (5) eating problems.

2001 - British Journal of Psychiatry
Mental disorders and cause-specific mortality

Background The impact of clinically diagnosed mental disorders on mortality in the general population has not been established. Aims To examine mental disorders for their prediction of cause-specific mortality. Method Mental disorders were determined using the 36-item version of the General Health Questionnaire and the Present State Examination in a nationally representative sample of 8000 adult Finns. Results During the 17-year follow-up period 1597 deaths occurred. The presence of a mental disorder detected at baseline was associated with an elevated mortality rate. The relative risk in men was 1.6 (95% confidence interval 1.3–1.8) and in women, 1.4 (95% Cl 1.2–1.6). In men and women with schizophrenia the relative risks of death during the follow-up period were 3.3 (95% Cl 2.3–4.9) and 2.3 (95% Cl 1.3–3.8) respectively, compared with the rest of the sample. In both men and women with schizophrenia the risk of dying of respiratory disease was increased, but the risk of dying of cardiovascular disease was increased only in men with neurotic depression. Conclusions Schizophrenia and depression are associated with an elevated risk of natural and unnatural deaths.

2003 - Preventive medicine
Association between physical activity and mental disorders among adults in the United States.

BACKGROUND The objective of this study was to determine the association between regular physical activity and mental disorders among adults in the United States. METHODS Multiple logistic regression analyses were used to compare the prevalence of mental disorders among those who did and did not report regular physical activity using data from the National Comorbidity Survey (n = 8098), a nationally representative sample of adults ages 15-54 in the United States. CONCLUSIONS Slightly over one-half of adults reported regular physical activity (60.3%). Regular physical activity was associated with a significantly decreased prevalence of current major depression and anxiety disorders, but was not significantly associated with other affective, substance use, or psychotic disorders. The association between regular physical activity and lower prevalence of current major depression (OR = 0.75 (0.6,0.94)), panic attacks (OR = 0.73 (0.56, 0.96)), social phobia (OR = 0.65 (0.53, 0.8)), specific phobia (OR = 0.78 (0.63, 0.97)), and agoraphobia (OR = 0.64 (0.43, 0.94)) persisted after adjusting for differences in sociodemographic characteristics, self-reported physical disorders, and comorbid mental disorders. Self-reported frequency of physical activity also showed a dose-response relation with current mental disorders. DISCUSSION These data document a negative association between regular physical activity and depressive and anxiety disorders among adults in the U.S. population. Future research that investigates the mechanism of this association using longitudinal data to examine the link between physical activity and incident and recurrent mental disorders across the lifespan is needed.

2006 - JAMA
New parents and mental disorders: a population-based register study.

CONTEXT Studies on postpartum mental disorders among mothers have primarily focused on either depression or psychoses and have generally not included the broader spectrum of mental disorders. A few studies have found that some men have symptoms of depression after becoming fathers, but these studies have not documented whether this exceeds the morbidity among men in general. OBJECTIVES To estimate the risk of postpartum mental disorders necessitating hospital admission or outpatient contact for mothers as well as fathers during a 1-year postnatal follow-up period after birth of first live-born child and to investigate whether parents in general differ from nonparents in the risk of admission with a mental disorder and how this difference varies with age. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS Register-based cohort formed by linking information from Danish health and civil service registers. A total of 2,357,942 Danish-born persons were followed up from their 15th birthday or January 1, 1973, whichever came later, until date of onset of the disorder in question, date of death, date of emigration from Denmark, or July 1, 2005, whichever came first. From 1973 to 2005, a total of 630,373 women and 547,431 men became parents for the first time, and during the first year after childbirth, these parents contributed 1,115,639 person-years at risk. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE First-time psychiatric hospital admission or outpatient contact 0 to 12 months after becoming a parent. RESULTS A total of 1171 mothers and 658 fathers were admitted with a mental disorder to a psychiatric hospital during the first 12 months after parenthood, and the corresponding prevalence of severe mental disorders through the first 3 months after childbirth was 1.03 per 1000 births for mothers and 0.37 per 1000 births for fathers. Compared with women who had given birth 11 to 12 months prior, primiparous women had an increased risk of incident hospital admission with any mental disorder through the first 3 months after childbirth, with the highest risk 10 to 19 days postpartum (relative risk [RR], 7.31; 95% confidence interval [CI], 5.44-9.81). Among mothers, risk was also increased for psychiatric outpatient contacts through the first 3 months after childbirth, also with the highest risk occurring 10 to 19 days postpartum (RR, 2.67; 95% CI, 1.99-3.59). Unlike motherhood, fatherhood was not associated with any increased risk of hospital admission or outpatient contact. CONCLUSION In Denmark, the risk of postpartum mental disorders among primiparous mothers is increased for several months after childbirth, but among fathers there is no excess of severe mental disorders necessitating admission or outpatient contacts.

1999 - Public Health Nutrition
The influence of physical activity on mental well-being

Abstract Objective: The case for exercise and health has primarily been made on its impact on diseases such coronary heart disease, obesity and diabetes. However, there is a very high cost attributed to mental disorders and illness and in the last 15 years there has been increasing research into the role of exercise a) in the treatment of mental health, and b) in improving mental well-being in the general population. There are now several hundred studies and over 30 narrative or meta-analytic reviews of research in this field. These have summarised the potential for exercise as a therapy for clinical or subclinical depression or anxiety, and the use of physical activity as a means of upgrading life quality through enhanced self-esteem, improved mood states, reduced state and trait anxiety, resilience to stress, or improved sleep. The purpose of this paper is to a) provide an updated view of this literature within the context of public health promotion and b) investigate evidence for physical activity and dietary interactions affecting mental well-being. Design: Narrative review and summary. Conclusions: Sufficient evidence now exists for the effectiveness of exercise in the treatment of clinical depression. Additionally, exercise has a moderate reducing effect on state and trait anxiety and can improve physical self-perceptions and in some cases global self-esteem. Also there is now good evidence that aerobic and resistance exercise enhances mood states, and weaker evidence that exercise can improve cognitive function (primarily assessed by reaction time) in older adults. Conversely, there is little evidence to suggest that exercise addiction is identifiable in no more than a very small percentage of exercisers. Together, this body of research suggests that moderate regular exercise should be considered as a viable means of treating depression and anxiety and improving mental well-being in the general public.

1994 - JAMA
Utility of a new procedure for diagnosing mental disorders in primary care. The PRIME-MD 1000 study.

OBJECTIVE To assess the validity and utility of PRIME-MD (Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders), a new rapid procedure for diagnosing mental disorders by primary care physicians. DESIGN Survey; criterion standard. SETTING Four primary care clinics. SUBJECTS A total of 1000 adult patients (369 selected by convenience and 631 selected by site-specific methods to avoid sampling bias) assessed by 31 primary care physicians. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES PRIME-MD diagnoses, independent diagnoses made by mental health professionals, functional status measures (Short-Form General Health Survey), disability days, health care utilization, and treatment/referral decisions. RESULTS Twenty-six percent of the patients had a PRIME-MD diagnosis that met full criteria for a specific disorder according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Revised Third Edition. The average time required of the primary care physician to complete the PRIME-MD evaluation was 8.4 minutes. There was good agreement between PRIME-MD diagnoses and those of independent mental health professionals (for the diagnosis of any PRIME-MD disorder, kappa = 0.71; overall accuracy rate = 88%). Patients with PRIME-MD diagnoses had lower functioning, more disability days, and higher rates of health care utilization than did patients without PRIME-MD diagnoses (for all measures, P < .005). Nearly half (48%) of 287 patients with a PRIME-MD diagnosis who were somewhat or fairly well-known to their physicians had not been recognized to have that diagnosis before the PRIME-MD evaluation. A new treatment or referral was initiated for 62% of the 125 patients with a PRIME-MD diagnosis who were not already being treated. CONCLUSION PRIME-MD appears to be a useful tool for identifying mental disorders in primary care practice and research.

2014
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed.

1. Directly experiencing the traumatic event(s). 2. Witnessing, in person, the event(s) as it occurred to others. 3. Learning that the traumatic event(s) occurred to a close family member or close friend. In cases of actual or threatened death of a family member or friend, the event(s) must have been violent or accidental. 4. Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of the traumatic event(s) (e.g., first responders collecting human remains; police officers repeatedly exposed to details of child abuse).

Beyond Money

M. Seligman
|
E. Diener
|
Ed Diener
|
Martin E.P. Seligman

Abstract:Policy decisions at the organizational, corporate, and governmental levels should be more heavily influenced by issues related to well-being—people's evaluations and feelings about their lives. Domestic policy currently focuses heavily on economic outcomes, although economic indicators omit, and even mislead about, much of what society values. We show that economic indicators have many shortcomings, and that measures of well-being point to important conclusions that are not apparent from economic indicators alone. For example, although economic output has risen steeply over the past decades, there has been no rise in life satisfaction during this period, and there has been a substantial increase in depression and distrust. We argue that economic indicators were extremely important in the early stages of economic development, when the fulfillment of basic needs was the main issue. As societies grow wealthy, however, differences in well-being are less frequently due to income, and are more frequently due to factors such as social relationships and enjoyment at work. Important noneconomic predictors of the average levels of well-being of societies include social capital, democratic governance, and human rights. In the workplace, noneconomic factors influence work satisfaction and profitability. It is therefore important that organizations, as well as nations, monitor the well-being of workers, and take steps to improve it. Assessing the well-being of individuals with mental disorders casts light on policy problems that do not emerge from economic indicators. Mental disorders cause widespread suffering, and their impact is growing, especially in relation to the influence of medical disorders, which is declining. Although many studies now show that the suffering due to mental disorders can be alleviated by treatment, a large proportion of persons with mental disorders go untreated. Thus, a policy imperative is to offer treatment to more people with mental disorders, and more assistance to their caregivers. Supportive, positive social relationships are necessary for well-being. There are data suggesting that well-being leads to good social relationships and does not merely follow from them. In addition, experimental evidence indicates that people suffer when they are ostracized from groups or have poor relationships in groups. The fact that strong social relationships are critical to well-being has many policy implications. For instance, corporations should carefully consider relocating employees because doing so can sever friendships and therefore be detrimental to well-being. Desirable outcomes, even economic ones, are often caused by well-being rather than the other way around. People high in well-being later earn higher incomes and perform better at work than people who report low well-being. Happy workers are better organizational citizens, meaning that they help other people at work in various ways. Furthermore, people high in well-being seem to have better social relationships than people low in well-being. For example, they are more likely to get married, stay married, and have rewarding marriages. Finally, well-being is related to health and longevity, although the pathways linking these variables are far from fully understood. Thus, well-being not only is valuable because it feels good, but also is valuable because it has beneficial consequences. This fact makes national and corporate monitoring of well-being imperative. In order to facilitate the use of well-being outcomes in shaping policy, we propose creating a national well-being index that systematically assesses key well-being variables for representative samples of the population. Variables measured should include positive and negative emotions, engagement, purpose and meaning, optimism and trust, and the broad construct of life satisfaction. A major problem with using current findings on well-being to guide policy is that they derive from diverse and incommensurable measures of different concepts, in a haphazard mix of respondents. Thus, current findings provide an interesting sample of policy-related findings, but are not strong enough to serve as the basis of policy. Periodic, systematic assessment of well-being will offer policymakers a much stronger set of findings to use in making policy decisions.

参考文献

[1]  Richard E. Lucas,et al.  Reexamining adaptation and the set point model of happiness: reactions to changes in marital status. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[2]  Andrew E. Clark,et al.  Unemployment as a Social Norm: Psychological Evidence from Panel Data , 2003, Journal of Labor Economics.

[3]  A. Furnham,et al.  National Differences in Personality, Socio-Economicf and Work-Related Attitudinal Variables , 1998 .

[4]  Michael Argyle,et al.  The psychology of happiness, 2nd ed. , 2001 .

[5]  F. Kraaimaat,et al.  Determinants of Psychological Distress and Its Course in the First Year After Diagnosis in Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients , 1997, Journal of Behavioral Medicine.

[6]  G. Klerman,et al.  Birth-cohort trends in rates of major depressive disorder among relatives of patients with affective disorder. , 1985, Archives of general psychiatry.

[7]  T. McAuley,et al.  Cost effectiveness of alcoholism treatment in partial vs inpatient settings. Six-month outcomes. , 1983, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[8]  R. Cogan,et al.  Effects of laughter and relaxation on discomfort thresholds , 1987, Journal of Behavioral Medicine.

[9]  J. Egeland,et al.  Dr. Egeland and Dr. Hostetter Reply , 1983 .

[10]  C. Hammen.  Interpersonal factors in an emerging developmental model of depression. , 2000 .

[11]  J. Addington,et al.  The psychological well-being of family members of individuals with schizophrenia , 2001, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.

[12]  Raymond G. Hunt,et al.  The Job-Satisfaction/ Life-Satisfaction Relationship: A Review of Empirical Research , 1980 .

[13]  J. Prochaska,et al.  Health Risk Reduction and Functional Restoration Following Coronary Revascularization: A Prospective Investigation Using Dynamic Stage Typology Clustering , 2000 .

[14]  N. Cantor,et al.  Still participating after all these years: a study of life task participation in later life. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[15]  D. Bonett,et al.  The role of pleasantness and activation-based well-being in performance prediction. , 1997, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[16]  J. Egeland,et al.  Amish Study, I: Affective disorders among the Amish, 1976-1980. , 1983, The American journal of psychiatry.

[17]  R. Veenhoven.  Is happiness relative? , 1991 .

[18]  M. Brecht,et al.  Emotional distress in men with life-threatening illness. , 1996, International journal of nursing studies.

[19]  Paul E. Spector,et al.  Building an integrative model of extra role work behaviors: A comparison of counterproductive work behavior with organizational citizenship behavior. , 2002 .

[20]  Richard Ford,et al.  The Progress Paradox : How Life Gets Better While People Feel Worse , 2006 .

[21]  Ronald Inglehart,et al.  Genes, culture, democracy, and happiness. , 2000 .

[22]  Hans-Ulrich Wittchen,et al.  The changing rate of major depression. Cross-national comparisons. Cross-National Collaborative Group. , 1992, JAMA.

[23]  T. Judge.  Job satisfaction as a reflection of disposition: Investigating the relationship and its effect on employee adaptive behaviors , 1990 .

[24]  Ricky W. Griffin,et al.  EFFECTS OF WORK REDESIGN ON EMPLOYEE PERCEPTIONS, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAVIORS: A LONG-TERM INVESTIGATION , 1991 .

[25]  R. Kessler,et al.  The impact of psychiatric disorders on work loss days , 1997, Psychological Medicine.

[26]  P. Thoits,et al.  Volunteer work and well-being. , 2001, Journal of health and social behavior.

[27]  Ed Diener,et al.  The relationship between income and subjective well-being: Relative or absolute? , 1993 .

[28]  J. Fahey,et al.  Shaking up Immunity: Psychological and Immunologic Changes after a Natural Disaster , 1997, Psychosomatic medicine.

[29]  I. Deary.  Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists , 1996 .

[30]  A. Miner.  Experience Sampling Events, Moods, Behaviors, and Performance at Work , 2001 .

[31]  B. Frey,et al.  Happiness and Economics: How the Economy and Institutions Affect Human Well-Being , 2003 .

[32]  David Watson,et al.  The effect of induced social interaction on positive and negative affect , 1991 .

[33]  T. Suslow,et al.  The experience of basic emotions in schizophrenia with and without affective negative symptoms. , 2003, Comprehensive psychiatry.

[34]  Amiram D Vinokur,et al.  Providing Social Support May Be More Beneficial Than Receiving It , 2003, Psychological science.

[35]  Christian Bjørnskov,et al.  The Happy Few: Cross-Country Evidence on Social Capital and Life Satisfaction , 2003 .

[36]  J. Rounds.  The comparative and combined utility of work value and interest data in career counseling with adults , 1990 .

[37]  R. Ulrich.  View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. , 1984, Science.

[38]  C. Ross,et al.  Hardship and depression. , 1985, Journal of health and social behavior.

[39]  Evidence that secretory IgA antibody is associated with daily mood. , 1987, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[40]  D. Shapiro,et al.  Immunological and physiological changes associated with induced positive and negative mood. , 1994, Psychosomatic medicine.

[41]  P. Vokonas,et al.  Is the Glass Half Empty or Half Full? A Prospective Study of Optimism and Coronary Heart Disease in the Normative Aging Study , 2001, Psychosomatic medicine.

[42]  S. Luthar.  The culture of affluence: psychological costs of material wealth. , 2003, Child development.

[43]  Michael R. Cunningham,et al.  What do you do when you're happy or blue? Mood, expectancies, and behavioral interest , 1988 .

[44]  M M Weissman,et al.  Lifetime prevalence of specific psychiatric disorders in three sites. , 1984, Archives of general psychiatry.

[45]  E. Diener,et al.  Subjective well-being. , 1984, Psychological bulletin.

[46]  G. Affleck,et al.  A dual pathway model of daily stressor effects on rheumatoid arthritis , 1997, Annals of behavioral medicine : a publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine.

[47]  C. Graham,et al.  Frustrated Achievers: Winners, Losers, and Subjective Well Being in New Market Economies , 2000 .

[48]  James K. Harter,et al.  Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: a meta-analysis. , 2002, The Journal of applied psychology.

[49]  R. Dawis,et al.  Measurement of person-environment fit and prediction of satisfaction in the theory of work adjustment☆ , 1987 .

[50]  Julie Abbott.  Does employee satisfaction matter? A study to determine whether low employee morale affects customer satisfaction and profits in the business‐to‐business sector , 2003 .

[51]  Timothy D. Wilson,et al.  Immune neglect: a source of durability bias in affective forecasting. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[52]  J. Sandberg,et al.  Psychology and Consumer Culture: The Struggle for a Good Life in a Materialistic World , 2004 .

[53]  D. Watson.  Mood and temperament , 2000 .

[54]  Anthony Clunies‐Ross.  Happiness and Economics: How the Economy and Institutions Affect Human Well‐being , 2002 .

[55]  V. Menec.  The relation between everyday activities and successful aging: a 6-year longitudinal study. , 2003, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[56]  C. Hammen.  The emergence of an interpersonal approach to depression. , 1999 .

[57]  Christoph Mundt,et al.  Interpersonal Factors in the Origin and Course of Affective Disorders , 1996 .

[58]  Richard E. Lucas,et al.  Dispositional Affect and Job Outcomes , 2002 .

[59]  J. Garber,et al.  Factors governing the effective remediation of negative affect and its cognitive and behavioral consequences. , 1985, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[60]  A. Oswald,et al.  Satisfaction and comparison income , 1996 .

[61]  T. Judge,et al.  The job satisfaction-job performance relationship: a qualitative and quantitative review. , 2001, Psychological bulletin.

[62]  P. Lewinsohn,et al.  Age-cohort changes in the lifetime occurrence of depression and other mental disorders. , 1993, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[63]  Stéphane Côté,et al.  Affect and Performance in Organizational Settings , 1999 .

[64]  James J. Lynch,et al.  The Broken Heart: The Medical Consequences of Loneliness , 1979 .

[65]  J. Kaprio,et al.  Life dissatisfaction as a predictor of fatal injury in a 20‐year follow‐up , 2002, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.

[66]  B. Schneider,et al.  Which comes first: employee attitudes or organizational financial and market performance? , 2003, The Journal of applied psychology.

[67]  Paul E. Spector,et al.  Unemployment, job satisfaction, and employee turnover: A meta-analytic test of the Muchinsky model. , 1987 .

[68]  S. J. Rogers,et al.  Spillover Between Marital Quality and Job Satisfaction: Long‐Term Patterns and Gender Differences , 2003 .

[69]  P. K. Adelmann.  Occupational complexity, control, and personal income: Their relation to psychological well-being in men and women. , 1987 .

[70]  K Kroenke,et al.  Health-related quality of life in primary care patients with mental disorders. Results from the PRIME-MD 1000 Study. , 1995, JAMA.

[71]  Robert I. Sutton,et al.  Employee Positive Emotion and Favorable Outcomes at the Workplace , 1994 .

[72]  Rosalind J Wright,et al.  Breathing easy: A prospective study of optimism and pulmonary function in the normative aging study , 2002, Annals of behavioral medicine : a publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine.

[73]  T. Judge,et al.  Person–Organization Fit and the Theory of Work Adjustment: Implications for Satisfaction, Tenure, and Career Success , 1994 .

[74]  W. Stroebe,et al.  The role of loneliness and social support in adjustment to loss: a test of attachment versus stress theory. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[75]  G. M. Tramontana,et al.  Critical review of research on psychotherapy outcome with adolescents: 1967-1977. , 1980, Psychological bulletin.

[76]  M. A. Stephens,et al.  Stress reduction for family caregivers: effects of adult day care use. , 1998, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[77]  M. Seligman,et al.  Explanatory style and cell-mediated immunity in elderly men and women. , 1991, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[78]  M. Hannan,et al.  Income and psychological distress: the impact of an income-maintenance experiment. , 1979, Journal of health and social behavior.

[79]  S. Maxwell,et al.  A meta-analysis of psychotherapy and drug therapy in the treatment of unipolar depression with adults. , 1983, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[80]  J. Brekke,et al.  Subjective experience in schizophrenia: factors influencing self-esteem, satisfaction with life, and subjective distress. , 1999, The American journal of orthopsychiatry.

[81]  I. Blackburn,et al.  A meta-analysis of the effects of cognitive therapy in depressed patients. , 1998, Journal of affective disorders.

[82]  M. Seligman,et al.  Catastrophizing and Untimely Death , 1998 .

[83]  R. Baumeister,et al.  The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. , 1995, Psychological bulletin.

[84]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  Autonomy as a moderator of the relationships between the Big Five personality dimensions and job performance. , 1993 .

[85]  Jennifer M. George,et al.  Leader positive mood and group performance: The case of customer service. , 1995 .

[86]  R. Di Tella,et al.  Partisan Social Happiness , 2000 .

[87]  H. Weiss,et al.  An Examination of the Joint Effects of Affective Experiences and Job Beliefs on Job Satisfaction and Variations in Affective Experiences over Time. , 1999, Organizational behavior and human decision processes.

[88]  R. Karasek.  Toward a psychosocially health work environment: Broader roles for psychologists and sociologists. , 2001 .

[89]  E. Diener,et al.  Most People are Pretty Happy, but There is Cultural Variation: The Inughuit, The Amish, and The Maas , 2005 .

[90]  R. Kessler,et al.  Associations between Marital Distress and Work Loss in a National Sample. , 1996 .

[91]  K. Chamberlain,et al.  The effects of minor events, optimism and self-esteem on health. , 1994, The British journal of clinical psychology.

[92]  B. Fredrickson,et al.  Positive Emotions Speed Recovery from the Cardiovascular Sequelae of Negative Emotions. , 1998, Cognition & emotion.

[93]  R. Lane.  The Loss of Happiness in Market Democracies , 2000 .

[94]  Roy F. Baumeister,et al.  Meanings of Life , 1992 .

[95]  T. Antonucci,et al.  Impact of Positive and Negative Aspects of Marital Relationships and Friendships on Well-Being of Older Adults , 2001 .

[96]  Daniel Kahneman.  New challenges to the rationality assumption , 1994 .

[97]  C. Hammen,et al.  Interpersonal dysfunction in depressed women: impairments independent of depressive symptoms. , 2002, Journal of affective disorders.

[98]  W. Katon,et al.  Quality Adjusted Life Years in Older Adults With Depressive Symptoms and Chronic Medical Disorders , 2000, International Psychogeriatrics.

[99]  D. Kahneman,et al.  Well-being : the foundations of hedonic psychology , 1999 .

[100]  R. Veenhoven,et al.  Wealth and Happiness Revisited – Growing National Income Does Go with Greater Happiness , 2003 .

[101]  M. Boyd,et al.  Correlates of life satisfaction in those with disabling conditions. , 1990 .

[102]  Andrew J. Oswald,et al.  Preferences over Inflation and Unemployment: Evidence from Surveys of Happiness , 2001 .

[103]  R. Çeliker,et al.  Fibromyalgia versus Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Comparison of Psychological Disturbance and Life Satisfaction , 2001 .

[104]  S. Cohen,et al.  Psychological stress, cytokine production, and severity of upper respiratory illness. , 1999, Psychosomatic medicine.

[105]  R. Veenhoven.  Well-Being in the Welfare State: Level Not Higher, Distribution Not More Equitable , 2000 .

[106]  Arthur A. Stukas,et al.  Psychological symptom levels and their correlates in lung and heart-lung transplant recipients. , 1999, Psychosomatics.

[107]  Alan D. Lopez,et al.  Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990–2020: Global Burden of Disease Study , 1997, The Lancet.

[108]  Ronald J. Deluga,et al.  Relationship of Resident Assistant Conscientiousness, Extraversion, and Positive Affect with Rated Performance , 2000 .

[109]  Rexford Brammer Hersey,et al.  Workers' Emotions in Shop and Home: A Study of Individual Workers from the Psychological and Physiological Stand-point , 1932 .

[110]  The immunoenhancing effects of humor on secretory IgA and resistance to respiratory infections , 1997 .

[111]  A. L. Ferriss.  Religion and the Quality of Life , 2002 .

[112]  Walter C. Borman,et al.  Personality predictors of citizenship performance , 2001 .

[113]  H. Ochs,et al.  Psychosocial stress moderates the relationship of cancer history with natural killer cell activity , 1998, Annals of behavioral medicine : a publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine.

[114]  P. Brickman,et al.  Lottery winners and accident victims: is happiness relative? , 1978, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[115]  Ed Diener,et al.  Very Happy People , 2002, Psychological science.

[116]  E. Diener,et al.  Factors predicting the subjective well-being of nations. , 1995, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[117]  Andrew Ortony,et al.  The Cognitive Structure of Emotions , 1988 .

[118]  T. Kashdan,et al.  Social Anxiety Disorder in Childhood and Adolescence: Current Status and Future Directions , 2001, Clinical child and family psychology review.

[119]  B. Fredrickson,et al.  The Undoing Effect of Positive Emotions , 2000, Motivation and emotion.

[120]  Gary N. Marks,et al.  Influences and Consequences of Well-being Among Australian Young People: 1980–1995 , 1999 .

[121]  T. S. Bateman,et al.  Job Satisfaction and the Good Soldier: The Relationship Between Affect and Employee “Citizenship” , 1983 .

[122]  Ed Diener,et al.  Extraversion and happiness , 1990 .

[123]  H. Faller,et al.  Psychological distress predicts functional outcomes at three and twelve months after total knee arthroplasty. , 2003, General hospital psychiatry.

[124]  A. Kposowa.  Unemployment and suicide: a cohort analysis of social factors predicting suicide in the US National Longitudinal Mortality Study , 2001, Psychological Medicine.

[125]  Alois Stutzer,et al.  The Role of Income Aspirations in Individual Happiness , 2003 .

[126]  A. Caspi,et al.  Work experiences and personality development in young adulthood. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[127]  S. Clarke,et al.  Psychosocial factors as predictors of functional status at 1 year in patients with left ventricular dysfunction. , 2000, Research in nursing & health.

[128]  H. Strupp,et al.  Measuring patient changes in mood, anxiety, and personality disorders : toward a core battery , 1997 .

[129]  J. George,et al.  Integrating bottom-up and top-down theories of subjective well-being: the case of health. , 1993, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[130]  H. Mandin,et al.  Psychosocial Predictors of Survival in End‐Stage Renal Disease , 1990, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[131]  S. Burns,et al.  Physical and psychological predictors of exercise dosage in healthy adults. , 1999, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[132]  Adrian Furnham,et al.  The Psychology of Money , 1998 .

[133]  J. George,et al.  Feeling good-doing good: a conceptual analysis of the mood at work-organizational spontaneity relationship. , 1992, Psychological bulletin.

[134]  R. Kessler,et al.  Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. , 1994, Archives of general psychiatry.

[135]  D. Westen,et al.  A multidimensional meta-analysis of treatments for depression, panic, and generalized anxiety disorder: an empirical examination of the status of empirically supported therapies. , 2001, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[136]  Rachel Jenkins,et al.  British Psychiatric Morbidity Survey , 2003, International review of psychiatry.

[137]  Ed Diener,et al.  Happiness of the very wealthy , 1985 .

[138]  N. Semmer,et al.  Working conditions and three types of well-being: a longitudinal study with self-report and rating data. , 2005, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[139]  D. Watson,et al.  General factors of affective temperament and their relation to job satisfaction over time , 1993 .

[140]  Cass R. Sunstein,et al.  Libertarian Paternalism Is Not an Oxymoron , 2003 .

[141]  B. Happell,et al.  Suicide and Schizophrenia: A Review of Literature for the Decade (1990-1999) and Implications for Mental Health Nursing , 2003, Issues in mental health nursing.

[142]  E. Diener,et al.  Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. , 1995, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[143]  Jennifer M. George,et al.  Personality, affect, and behavior in groups. , 1990 .

[144]  Ronald Inglehart,et al.  The theory of human development: A cross-cultural analysis , 2003 .

[145]  M. Thorslund,et al.  Predictors of mortality for the oldest old. A 4-year follow-up of community-based elderly in Sweden. , 1992, Archives of gerontology and geriatrics.

[146]  J. Twenge.  The age of anxiety? Birth cohort change in anxiety and neuroticism, 1952-1993. , 2000, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[147]  L. Riebel.  Psychology and Consumer Culture: The Struggle for a Good Life in a Materialistic World. , 2005 .

[148]  Richard E. Lucas,et al.  Discriminant validity of well-being measures. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[149]  M. Argyle.  The Psychology of Happiness , 1986 .

[150]  P. Keck,et al.  Health-related quality of life using the SF-36 in patients with bipolar disorder compared with patients with chronic back pain and the general population. , 2000, Journal of affective disorders.

[151]  Paul E. Spector,et al.  A longitudinal study of relations between job stressors and job strains while controlling for prior negative affectivity and strains. , 2000, The Journal of applied psychology.

[152]  Timothy A. Judge,et al.  Dispositional Affect and Job Satisfaction: A Review and Theoretical Extension , 2001 .

[153]  A. Rush,et al.  Outcome measures of depression. , 1997 .

[154]  C. Andrade,et al.  PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AND MORBIDITY IN PARENTS OF NARCOTIC-DEPENDANT MALES , 1989, Indian journal of psychiatry.

[155]  J. Lansford.  Family relationships, friendships, and well-being in the United States and Japan. , 2000 .

[156]  B. Frey,et al.  Happiness Prospers in Democracy , 2000 .

[157]  B. Frey,et al.  What Can Economists Learn from Happiness Research? , 2001, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[158]  R. Veenhoven,et al.  Wealth and Happiness Revisited: Growing wealth of nations does go with greater happiness , 2003 .

[159]  Richard A. Easterlin,et al.  Growth Triumphant: The Twenty-first Century in Historical Perspective , 1996 .

[160]  E. Diener,et al.  National differences in reported subjective well-being: Why do they occur? , 1995 .

[161]  Andrew E. Clark,et al.  What really matters in a job? Hedonic measurement using quit data , 2001 .

[162]  A. Lehman.  Measures of quality of life among persons with severe and persistent mental disorders , 1996, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.

[163]  C. Cleeland,et al.  The effects of induced mood on laboratory pain , 1991, Pain.

[164]  C. Graham.  Does Happiness Pay? An Exploration Based on Panel Data from Russia , 2002 .

[165]  G. Tomlinson,et al.  Psychopathology and quality of life in schizophrenia. , 1997, Journal of psychiatry & neuroscience : JPN.

[166]  Andrew Postlewaite,et al.  Relative Income Concerns and the Rise in Married Women&Apos;S Employment , 1995 .

[167]  R. Barro.  Determinants of Democracy , 1999 .

[168]  Charles Glisson,et al.  Predictors of job satisfaction and organizational commitment in human service organizations. , 1988 .

[169]  G. Margolin,et al.  The Relationship Between Daily Marital Interaction, Work, and Health-Promoting Behaviors in Dual-Earner Couples , 2003 .

[170]  Sigal G. Barsade,et al.  Affect and managerial performance: A test of the sadder-but-wiser vs. happier-and-smarter hypotheses. , 1993 .

[171]  E. Diener,et al.  Most People are Pretty Happy, but There is Cultural Variation: The Inughuit, The Amish, and The Maasai , 2005 .

[172]  M. Cunningham.  Does Happiness Mean Friendliness? , 1988, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[173]  R. Honkanen,et al.  Self‐reported life satisfaction and treatment factors in patients with schizophrenia, major depression and anxiety disorder , 1999, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.

[174]  K. M. Bartol,et al.  Money and subjective well-being: it's not the money, it's the motives. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[175]  S. Lyubomirsky,et al.  What are the Differences between Happiness and Self-Esteem , 2006 .

[176]  J. Hoffman,et al.  An examination of individual differences in the relationship between interpersonal stress and disease activity among women with rheumatoid arthritis. , 1998, Arthritis care and research : the official journal of the Arthritis Health Professions Association.

[177]  L. George,et al.  Physician- and self-ratings of health, neuroticism and subjective well-being among men and women. , 1984 .

[178]  L. Niskanen,et al.  Rapidly declining mental well-being during unemployment , 1996 .

[179]  Piet Ouweneel.  Social Security and Well-Being of the Unemployed in 42 Nations , 2002 .

[180]  R. Edelmann,et al.  Loneliness, mobility, well-being and social support in a sample of over 85 year olds , 1989 .

[181]  P. Bebbington,et al.  Prevalence of psychiatric disorder and the need for psychiatric care in Northern Ireland , 2002, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[182]  Richard E. Lucas,et al.  Subjective Weil-Being: Three Decades of Progress , 2004 .

[183]  M. Kohn,et al.  Job Conditions and Personality: A Longitudinal Assessment of Their Reciprocal Effects , 1982, American Journal of Sociology.

[184]  M. Eisemann,et al.  Predictive factors for the outcome of a multidisciplinary pain rehabilitation programme on sick-leave and life satisfaction in patients with whiplash trauma and other myofascial pain: a follow-up study , 1998, Clinical rehabilitation.

[185]  B. Schwartz.  The Paradox of Choice: Why More Is Less , 2004 .

[186]  R. Easterlin.  Will raising the incomes of all increase the happiness of all , 1995 .

[187]  Paul E. Spector.  Job satisfaction: application, assessment, cause, and consequences , 1997 .

[188]  Angus Campbell,et al.  The sense of well-being in America , 1981 .

[189]  Michael D. Robinson,et al.  Why are materialists less satisfied , 2004 .

[190]  E. Diener,et al.  Will Money Increase Subjective Well-Being? , 2002 .

[191]  Rachel Jenkins,et al.  The National Psychiatric Morbidity Surveys of Great Britain--initial findings from the Household Survey , 2003, International review of psychiatry.

[192]  Peggy Schyns,et al.  Crossnational Differences in Happiness: Economic and Cultural Factors Explored , 1998 .

[193]  Mark R. Leary,et al.  Responses to Social Exclusion: Social Anxiety, Jealousy, Loneliness, Depression, and Low Self-Esteem , 1990 .

[194]  P. Warr.  Well-being and the workplace. , 1999 .

[195]  R. Sanderman,et al.  Changes in Health‐Related Quality of Life in Older Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction or Congestive Heart Failure: A Prospective Study , 2001, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.

[196]  M. Seligman.  Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment , 2002 .

[197]  M. Seligman,et al.  The effectiveness of psychotherapy. The Consumer Reports study. , 1995, The American psychologist.

[198]  Anne Maass,et al.  Chronic Exposure to Noise in Industry , 2002 .

[199]  J. Holland,et al.  The health-related quality of life and survival of small-cell lung cancer patients: Results of a companion study to CALGB 9033 , 2002, Quality of Life Research.

[200]  Paul Frijters,et al.  The measurement of welfare and well-being; the Leyden approach , 1999 .

[201]  Erich Fromm,et al.  The Art of Loving , 1956 .

[202]  P. Jackson,et al.  The impact of unemployment on the psychological well-being of British Asians , 1994, Psychological Medicine.

[203]  Timothy T. Clydesdale,et al.  Family Behaviors among Early U.S. Baby Boomers: Exploring the Effects of Religion and Income Change, 1965–1982 , 1997 .

[204]  H. Faller,et al.  [Do psychological factors modify survival of cancer patients? II: Results of an empirical study with bronchial carcinoma patients]. , 1997, Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik, medizinische Psychologie.

[205]  W. Friesen,et al.  PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Positive Emotions in Early Life and Longevity : Findings from the Nun Study , 2004 .

[206]  Religion and Psychology: Introduction to the Special Issue , 2002 .

[207]  H. Wahl,et al.  Familiäre Netzwerke und Lebenszufriedenheit alter Menschen in ländlichen und urbanen Regionen , 2002 .

[208]  D. Kahneman,et al.  Toward National Well-Being Accounts , 2004 .

[209]  Siu Fai Leung,et al.  Migration, Family, and Risk Diversification , 2001, Journal of Labor Economics.

[210]  A. Alesina,et al.  Inequality and Happiness: Are Americans and Europeans Different? , 2004 .

[211]  S. Folkman,et al.  The impact of daily stress on health and mood: psychological and social resources as mediators. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[212]  N. Salsman,et al.  Educational Attainment, Positive Psychological Mediators, and Resources for Health and Vitality in Older Adults , 2003, Journal of aging and health.

[213]  Marilyn J. Haring,et al.  The Social Activity/Subjective Well-Being Relation , 1984 .

[214]  N. Chappell,et al.  Social isolation and well-being. , 1989, Journal of gerontology.

[215]  Thomas E. Joiner,et al.  The interactional nature of depression: Advances in interpersonal approaches. , 1999 .

[216]  Jennifer A. Chatman,et al.  Intrinsic and Extrinsic Work Orientations as Moderators of the Effect of Annual Income on Subjective Well-Being: A Longitudinal Study , 2003, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[217]  J. Twenge.  Birth cohort, social change, and personality: The interplay of dysphoria and individualism in the 20th century. , 2002 .

[218]  M. Hagerty.  Social comparisons of income in one's community: evidence from national surveys of income and happiness. , 2000, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[219]  E. Diener,et al.  Making the Best of a Bad Situation: Satisfaction in the Slums of Calcutta , 2001 .

[220]  R. Carney,et al.  Depression as a risk factor for cardiac events in established coronary heart disease: A review of possible mechanisms , 1995, Annals of behavioral medicine : a publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine.

[221]  H. Varian.  Microeconomic analysis : answers to exercises , 1992 .

[222]  V. Vroom.  Work and motivation , 1964 .

[223]  P. Creed,et al.  The relative effects of deprivation of the latent and manifest benefits of employment on the well-being of unemployed people. , 2001, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[224]  M. Brecht,et al.  Emotional distress in women with symptomatic HIV disease. , 1998, Issues in mental health nursing.

[225]  P. Hillerås,et al.  Negative and Positive Affect among the Very Old , 1998 .

[226]  R. Schulz,et al.  Psychiatric and physical morbidity effects of caregiving. , 1990, Journal of gerontology.

[227]  Michelle T. Iaffaldano,et al.  Job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. , 1985 .

[228]  K. Koskela,et al.  Men, women and friends — are there differences in relation to mental well-being? , 2004, Quality of Life Research.

[229]  Ricky W. Griffin.  Research Notes. Effects of Work Redesign on Employee Perceptions, Attitudes, and Behaviors: A Long-Term Investigation , 1991 .

[230]  A. Marsella,et al.  Depression in the wives of nuclear submarine personnel. , 1979, The American journal of psychiatry.

[231]  Lynn Magdol,et al.  Is Moving Gendered? The Effects of Residential Mobility on the Psychological Well-Being of Men and Women , 2002 .

[232]  Daniel Heller,et al.  The confounding role of personality and trait affectivity in the relationship between job and life satisfaction , 2002 .

[233]  S. Manuck,et al.  Associations between stress, trait negative affect, acute immune reactivity, and antibody response to hepatitis B injection in healthy young adults. , 2001, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[234]  H. F. Nelson,et al.  Effectiveness of three types of spouse-involved behavioral alcoholism treatment. , 1991, British journal of addiction.

[235]  P. Groenewegen,et al.  Workload and job satisfaction among general practitioners: a review of the literature. , 1991, Social science & medicine.

[236]  F. Fruyt.  A Person-Centered Approach to P–E Fit Questions Using a Multiple-Trait Model , 2002 .

[237]  Eunkook M. Suh,et al.  National differences in subjective well-being. , 1999 .

[238]  J. Knote.  Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community , 2004 .

[239]  Barry M. Staw,et al.  The dispositional approach to job attitudes: A lifetime longitudinal test. , 1986 .

[240]  D. Kahneman,et al.  A Survey Method for Characterizing Daily Life Experience: The Day Reconstruction Method , 2004, Science.

[241]  R. Veenhoven.  World database of happiness : correlates of happiness : 7837 findings from 603 studies in 69 nations, 1911-1994 , 1994 .

[242]  E. Diener,et al.  Money and happiness: Income and subjective well-being across nations. , 2000 .

[243]  Norbert Schwarz,et al.  Zeroing in on the Dark Side of the American Dream , 2003, Psychological science.

[244]  Charles Kenny,et al.  Does Growth Cause Happiness, or Does Happiness Cause Growth? , 1999 .

[245]  Richard E. Lucas,et al.  Unemployment Alters the Set Point for Life Satisfaction , 2004, Psychological science.

[246]  Sheldon Cohen,et al.  Psychological Stress and Antibody Response to Immunization: A Critical Review of the Human Literature , 2001, Psychosomatic medicine.

[247]  Andrew J. Oswald,et al.  Happiness and economic performance , 1997 .

[248]  William J Doyle,et al.  Emotional Style and Susceptibility to the Common Cold , 2003, Psychosomatic medicine.

[249]  L. Verbrugge,et al.  Short-term dynamics of disability and well-being. , 1994, Journal of health and social behavior.

[250]  G. Nelson,et al.  Predictors of the adaptation of people with psychiatric disabilities in group homes, supportive apartments, and board-and-care homes. , 1999 .

[251]  R. Colligan,et al.  Optimists vs pessimists: survival rate among medical patients over a 30-year period. , 2000, Mayo Clinic proceedings.

[252]  A. Oswald,et al.  Unhappiness and Unemployment , 1994 .

[253]  S. Sudman,et al.  Time, Goods, and Well-Being , 1985 .

[254]  N. Schneiderman.  Integrating behavioral and social sciences with public health , 2001 .

[255]  E. Diener,et al.  Culture, Parental Conflict, Parental Marital Status, and the Subjective Well-Being of Young Adults , 1998 .

[256]  Richard E. Lucas,et al.  Lags and Leads in Life Satisfaction: A Test of the Baseline Hypothesis , 2006, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[257]  W. Söllner,et al.  Life satisfaction and active coping style are important predictors of recovery from surgery. , 2003, Journal of psychosomatic research.

[258]  S A Black,et al.  Emotional Well‐Being Predicts Subsequent Functional Independence and Survival , 2000, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.

[259]  Robert D. Putnam,et al.  Social Capital: Measurement and Consequences , 2001 .

[260]  D. Organ,et al.  A META-ANALYTIC REVIEW OF ATTITUDINAL AND DISPOSITIONAL PREDICTORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR , 1995 .

[261]  A Meta-Analysis,et al.  Employee Engagement, Satisfaction, and Business-Unit-Level Outcomes: , 2003 .

[262]  Kipling D. Williams,et al.  Ostracism: The Power of Silence , 2001 .

[263]  K. Fiscella,et al.  Does psychological distress contribute to racial and socioeconomic disparities in mortality? , 1997, Social science & medicine.

[264]  C. Hammen,et al.  Social competence as a predictor of chronic interpersonal stress , 1998 .

[265]  David Spiegel,et al.  Depression and cancer: mechanisms and disease progression , 2003, Biological Psychiatry.

[266]  Kennon M. Sheldon,et al.  Materialistic values: Their causes and consequences. , 2004 .

[267]  Daniel J. Koys.  The Effects of Employee Satisfaction, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, and Turnover on Organizational Effectiveness , 2001 .

[268]  J. Helliwell,et al.  How&Apos;S Life? Combining Individual and National Variables to Explain Subjective Well-Being , 2002 .

[269]  M. Schwartz,et al.  Physical Activity in First-Degree Relatives of Breast Cancer Patients , 2001, Journal of Behavioral Medicine.

[270]  T. Lynch,et al.  Pain and emotion: new research directions. , 2001, Journal of clinical psychology.

引用
Emotion Detection Framework for Twitter Data Using Supervised Classifiers
2020
Subjective Well-Being: Measuring Happiness, Suffering, and Other Dimensions of Experience
2014
Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution
2013
Some Final Words
2013
The relative relativity of material and experiential purchases.
Journal of personality and social psychology
2010
Group Well‐Being: Morale from a Positive Psychology Perspective
2008
0 / ward a theory of business
2015
Positive psychology: Past, present, and (possible) future
2006
What is more important for national well-being: money or autonomy? A meta-analysis of well-being, burnout, and anxiety across 63 societies.
Journal of personality and social psychology
2011
Teaching Earth Smarts: Equipping the Next Generation with the Capacity to Adapt
2014
THE FOUR-LEAF CLOVER OF HUMAN RESOURCES
2012
Measuring objective and subjective well-being: dimensions and data sources
International Journal of Data Science and Analytics
2020
Terminal decline in well-being: The role of social orientation.
Psychology and aging
2016
PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Does Life Seem Better on a Sunny Day? Examining the Association Between Daily Weather Conditions and Life Satisfaction Judgments
2013
The Economist as Therapist: Methodological Ramifications of 'Light' Paternalism
2007
Emotional well-being and time pressure.
PsyCh journal
2014
Well-being and activity-based models
2012
Happiness and Time Preference: The Effect of Positive Affect in a Random-Assignment Experiment
2011
Life Goals Matter to Happiness: A Revision of Set-Point Theory
2008
What Makes Workers Happy? Anticipated Rewards and Job Satisfaction
2012