This report summarizes a variety of research findings and tips from web designers on how to make web sites more appealing, educational and entertaining for children. Given the great importance of computers and Internet technology in children’s lives, web sites that appeal to tweens (pre-teenaged children usually between the ages of nine and twelve) are in great demand. To design web sites that are appropriate for, and appeal to children, designers must understand the characteristics that make children different than adult web users and use specific design strategies that will facilitate a functional and appealing design based on the preferences and needs of the target audience. Factors that motivate children's online activities Self-expression Whether creating web pages, content, or new identities, the expression of self is an important reason for kids to come to online venues. Kids are avid communicators in the online world, often creating characters or “handles” that express real or fantasy element of themselves. Additionally, kids often like sites where they can “leave a footprint”, or impression of their presence. They enjoy venting frustrations, writing fan letters, expressing ideas to their peers and site experts, or even designing their own areas, pages, or worlds. (Bruckman, 1997; Sullivan, Norris, Soloway & Peet, 2000; Wartella, O'Keefe & Scantlin, 2000) Social Relationships A primary use of online media is the capacity to enrich, reinforce, and even create social relationships with peers. (Bruckman, 1997; Fishler, 1998) Interestingly, this phenomenon may be stronger for boys than for girls. Boys report that playing games online is a compelling social activity that they engage in with playmates. They use gaming in a social context as an integral part of conversation, comparing scores, strategies and progress. Additionally, boys that game together are more likely to play together, or visit each other’s homes. (Wartella, O'Keefe & Scantlin, 2000) Though females are not as likely to use online interactions to strengthen existing relationships, females do engage in online communication that is social in nature. Females are much less likely to play networked games together, but they are much more likely to use electronic mail, instant messaging, “buddy lists” and other technological innovations as tools to broaden the network of personal communication beyond the realm of family and close friends. (Makela, Giller Tscheligi & Sefelin, 2000; Sullivan, Norris, Soloway & Peet, 2000; Wartella, O'Keefe & Scantlin, 2000) Social Identity Formation As kids approach adolescence, the concept of group membership as a definition of self becomes more and more prevalent. In the real world they are contending with cliques, and labels and in the virtual world they can reinforce or transcend these practices. For boys, gaming can result in groups that train and play together, and even the games that they play help them define the groups that they are part of. For all children, the anonymity of the web can be a great place to pair up based on interests. Kids group together based on traits that may not be salient for friendship formation if they met in the real world. For example, in one study of a children’s MOO (a more socially-oriented version of an online world that evolved from MUDs that were created for online role playing games), users that were brainy befriended the popular kids, a situation that probably would not have happened had the kids met face-to-face. (Bruckman, 1997; Sullivan, Norris, Soloway & Peet, 2000) Additional Gender Differences There are slight gender differences in media usage, and this differentiation in media usage widens with age. (Beatto, 1997; Bernard, 2001; Howard, 1998) Though boys and girls spend approximately the same amount of time using media each day, girls are apt to listen to more music. Boys generally watch more television and play more video games than girls. Boys in the 2-7 year old age group use an average of 19 minutes more media a day than girls in the same age group. By the time children reach the tweens, the gap has widened to a 24-minute difference. The types of media preferred differ by gender as well. Research findings show that girls are comfortable on the Internet, in fact some studies have shown that girls use the Internet more than boys. While spending roughly the same amount of time, the types of activities that boys and girls engage in online are somewhat different. Girls are more likely to use the Internet for education, schoolwork, email and chat rooms while boys are more likely to use the Internet for entertainment and games. (NSBF, 2000) Generally speaking boys tend to spend more time playing games than girls, and there are differences in the types of games that boys and girls play. Boys generally preferring sports, action adventure and violent action games, while girls generally prefer educational, puzzle, spatial relation and fantasy-adventure games. (Berselli, 1998) Generalizations of the differences between genders are summarized below. GIRLS ONLINE BOYS ONLINE When online, girls tend to engage in activities that are educational or communicative in nature. Schoolwork, email and chatting are common uses; other activities include music and shopping. (NSBF, 2000) Girls use technology to share, create and express themselves. (Bruner, Bennet & Honey, 1998) Boys use Internet and computer technology primarily for entertainment and recreation purposes and as a way to exert control and power or to express their autonomy. Games are the primary activity of most boys online. (NSBF, 2000) Reasons for their interest in games include a sense of challenge, competition, complexity, reward and stimulation. Design Tips for Designers creating Web Sites for Children Seek Feedback from kids during the design process The golden rule for designing web sites for kids is to seek input and feedback from children throughout the design process. Children are fundamentally different than adults and can have profoundly different responses to media content. According to KimWimpsett, a web designer and author of a series of articles on web design for cNET, "Children think and learn differently than adults do, and the Web sites they like are different too. Basic Web design principles still apply—keep pages fast and lean, for example-but kidoriented Web builders face unique issues when designing sites specifically for a young audience." (Wimpsett, 1998) It is also important to consider the fact that today's youth may be inherently different than previous generations. Children today have had access to different media and have experienced different world events than those that helped to mold and shape their predecessors. According to Donald Tapscott, "The changing nature of childhood makes itself most obvious when N-Geners are contrasted with the baby boomers who, as a generation, have spent their lives obsessed with being youthful. N-Geners insist that they are more mature than adults expect." (Tapscott, 1998) By way of the Internet and new media children today have access to much of the world's knowledge, millions of other children, and countless places and sites to explore at their fingertips—things that were virtually unimaginable by children growing up without the Internet. Adults will sometimes design products for kids with the assumption that we they know what is best for them. Where interactive design for children is concerned children sometimes know best, and it’s important for adults to feel comfortable handing them the reigns from time to time. (Druin, 1999) The only real authorities on what makes a site appealing to children are children themselves. Richly mediated environments offer an appeal for children Kids enjoy being immersed in richly mediated environments. It is important to take advantage of what the web has to offer in terms of design options—being web-imaginative in our designs ensures that the full potential of the Internet is realized. Thinking beyond flashy graphics and images can also be of benefit when designing for kids. Research shows that kids prefer and learn better with a rich combination of text, graphics, sound and animation. (Harel, 2001) Having arrived as a true multimedia medium, the web allows designers the opportunity to include sound and animated content as well as text and static images. Bright and bold visual elements, especially things that move, are favorites among children. (Bruckman, in press) "Where adults might be satisfied with an informative page of plain text, kids need more in order for them to stick around. Good content is very important, but it’s just not enough to simply offer information. That information must be delivered in an interesting way." (Andrea Mulder as quoted in Wimpsett, 1998) As a counter point to the belief that a flashier site is, by default, better than one less flashy, researchers at the Department of Technology and Cognition at the University of Texas have conducted research on children's preference for different types of web sites. So far their research has yet to support the fact that sites with visually rich graphical presentation increase site traffic. (Sullivan, Norris, Soloway & Peet, 2000) Past research has suggested that sites aimed at adults should avoid unnecessary graphics or animations while sites for kids offer more room for the addition of these features. (Wimpsett, 1998) While the verdict is still out on whether or not this is true, initial research has shown that children, not unlike adults, can also find web animations to be distracting and desire to remove them from their visual field. (Sullivan, Norris, Soloway & Peet, 2000) Appropriate use of animation can be beneficial Animation, when used appropriately, can be a valuable tool for designers building web pages for kids. Animation is not the complete solution for providing a fun and engaging experience for kids, but it may be a good place to start. In addit

The von Economo neurons (VENs) are large bipolar neurons located in frontoinsular (FI) and anterior cingulate cortex in great apes and humans, but not other primates. We performed stereological counts of the VENs in FI and LA (limbic anterior, a component of anterior cingulate cortex) in great apes and in humans. The VENs are more numerous in humans than in apes, although one gorilla approached the lower end of the human range. We also examined the ontological development of the VENs in FI and LA in humans. The VENs first appear in small numbers in the 36th week post-conception, are rare at birth, and increase in number during the first 8 months after birth. There are significantly more VENs in the right hemisphere than in the left in FI and LA in postnatal brains of apes and humans. This asymmetry in VEN numbers may be related to asymmetries in the autonomic nervous system. The activity of the inferior anterior insula, which contains FI, is related to physiological changes in the body, decision-making, error recognition, and awareness. The VENs appear to be projection neurons, although their targets are unknown. We made a preliminary study of the connections of FI cortex based on diffusion tensor imaging in the brain of a gorilla. The VEN-containing regions connect to the frontal pole as well as to other parts of frontal and insular cortex, the septum, and the amygdala. It is likely that the VENs in FI are projecting to some or all of these structures and relaying information related to autonomic control, decision-making, or awareness. The VENs selectively express the bombesin peptides neuromedin B (NMB) and gastrin releasing peptide (GRP) which are also expressed in another population of closely related neurons, the fork cells. NMB and GRP signal satiety. The genes for NMB and GRP are expressed selectively in small populations of neurons in the insular cortex in mice. These populations may be related to the VEN and fork cells and may be involved in the regulation of appetite. The loss of these cells may be related to the loss of satiety signaling in patients with frontotemporal dementia who have damage to FI. The VENs and fork cells may be morphological specializations of an ancient population of neurons involved in the control of appetite present in the insular cortex in all mammals. We found that the protein encoded by the gene DISC1 (disrupted in schizophrenia) is preferentially expressed by the VENs. DISC1 has undergone rapid evolutionary change in the line leading to humans, and since it suppresses dendritic branching it may be involved in the distinctive VEN morphology.

The von Economo neurons (VENs) are large bipolar neurons located in frontoinsular (FI) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in great apes and humans but not other primates. We stereologically counted the VENs in FI and the limbic anterior (LA) area of ACC and found them to be more numerous in humans than in apes. In humans, VENs first appear in small numbers in the 36th week postconception are rare at birth and increase in number during the first 8 months after birth. There are significantly more VENs in the right hemisphere than the left in FI and LA in postnatal brains; this may be related to asymmetries in the autonomic nervous system. The activity of the inferior anterior insula, containing FI, is related to physiological changes in the body, decision‐making, error recognition, and awareness. In a preliminary diffusion tensor imaging study of the connections of FI, we found that the VEN‐containing regions connect with the frontal pole as well as with other parts of frontal and insular cortex, the septum, and the amygdala. The VENs and a related cell population, the fork cells, selectively express the bombesin peptides neuromedin B (NMB) and gastrin releasing pepide, which signal satiety. The loss of VENs and fork cells may be related to the loss of satiety signaling in patients with frontotemporal dementia who have damage to FI. These cells may be morphological specializations of an ancient population of neurons involved in the control of appetite present in the insular cortex in all mammals. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

The growth of evolutionary psychology has led to renewed interest in what might be the significant evolutionary heritage of people living today, and in the extent to which humans are suited to a particular adaptive environment—the EEA. The EEA, though, is a new tool in the battery of evolutionary concepts, and it is important both that it is scrutinized for its utility, and that the actual reconstructions of the environments in which humans and hominids evolved are based on sound palaeobiological inference and an appropriate use of the phylogenetic context of primate evolution.

The behavioral development of young apes is influenced by their physical and social environments. Deficient or limited environments can result in reproductive insufficiencies (see Beck and Power, 1988) and behavioral deficits, such as Stereotypic movements (see Puleo, et al., 1983; Meder, 1989). The role of the environment in behavioral deficits is evident from studies where stereotypies were reduced or eliminated when the physical or social environments were enhanced (Clarke, et al., 1982; Puleo, et al., 1983; Meder, 1989). The mere presence of conspecifics, however, does not guarantee the development of species-typical behavior, even in complex social groups. For example, a young orangutan reared in a social group containing only adults is limited in its opportunities for social play (Zucker, et al., 1986; see Baldwin, 1986, for more about social and ecological constraints on play). Although adult orangutans of both sexes do play, the rate of adult play is much lower than that of immature orangutans (Zucker, et al., 1986), and in playing with immature orangutans, the style of play of adult females differs from that of adult males (Zucker, et al., 1978). Nursery-reared apes are at risk for behavioral deficits as their social and physical environments usually are less complex than their respective natural environments, although nursery environments and rearing protocols can be made relatively complex and stimulating.

The Asian apes, orangutans and gibbons, possess unusual social systems among anthropoid primates. Social groups of gibbons consist of mated adult pairs and their offspring; mature orangutans are primarily solitary. Recent experimental field research has begun to yield insights into the behavioral mechanisms employed by these animals to maintain their characteristic patterns of social dispersion. While spatial separation between female orangutans appears to be maintained passively, aggression, which is manifest during direct encounters and long-distance vocal interactions, mediates male asociality. Male-male aggression is the result of intense intrasexual competition occurring between animals for mating access to females. To reduce intrasexual competition, male orangutans have adopted alternative mating tactics. In contrast to female orangutans, female gibbons show marked agonistic tendencies toward conspecifics. Female territoriality contributes to preventing males from becoming polygynous. Male gibbons, restricted to monogamous relationships, attempt to ensure their paternity through intrasexual aggression. These observations suggest that the spatial dispersion of females constrains male mating options in both species. However, variations between orangutan and gibbon social systems can be understood as consequences of the temporal dispersion of sexually receptive females. The temporal clumping of females, due to relatively high operational sex ratios, limits the ability of male gibbons to acquire multiple mates. Conversely, an extremely low operational sex ratio in orangutans creates a strong selection pressure for intrasexual competition and polygamous mating. These considerations provide a novel framework for interpreting the social systems of the African apes.

Previous work on bonobos (Pan paniscus) has focused on the role of aggression in the context of conflict resolution in captive groups. This study investigates events of aggressive behaviour of wild bonobos to evaluate its significance in the context of mating. Temporal association (15 minutes) between aggression and mating was used to assume functional relationship. The proportion of events that were found to be related to mating activity was highest for female-female aggression followed by male-male, male-female, and female-male aggression. The results suggest that intrasexual aggression is used to manipulate the mating success of competitors: Males competed for access to oestrus females, aggression between males was high on mating days, and aggressors had higher mating rates than targets. Harassment by females disturbed mating attempts of targets, the rate of aggression increased with the number of oestrous females per party and following harassment, aggressors tended to mate more often with the male partner of the target female. Unlike intrasexual aggression, support for the predicted functions of inter-sexual aggression in the context of mating was weak. Aggression by males against females was rare and was almost never followed by mating between aggressor and target. Female aggression against males occurred frequently but appeared to be independent of mating behaviour. The results did not support the female-defence alliance hypothesis (Parish, 1996). However, when males and females engaged in close association, the rate of aggression tended to be lower and rates of mating were higher than during control periods. We suggest that male intersexual aggression is incompatible with intersexual bonding and propose that the potential benefits that males derive from affiliative long-term association with females prevent males from being aggressive against females.

Personality dimensions capturing individual differences in behavior, cognition, and affect have been described in several species, including humans, chimpanzees, and orangutans. However, comparisons between species are limited by the use of different questionnaires. We asked raters to assess free-ranging rhesus macaques at two time points on personality and subjective well-being questionnaires used earlier to rate chimpanzees and orangutans. Principal-components analysis yielded domains we labeled Confidence, Friendliness, Dominance, Anxiety, Openness, and Activity. The presence of Openness in rhesus macaques suggests it is an ancestral characteristic. The absence of Conscientiousness suggests it is a derived characteristic in African apes. Higher Confidence and Friendliness, and lower Anxiety were prospectively related to subjective well-being, indicating that the connection between personality and subjective well-being in humans, chimpanzees, and orangutans is ancestral in catarrhine primates. As demonstrated here, each additional species studied adds another fold to the rich, historical story of primate personality evolution.

Orangutans are the only great apes found outside of Africa. At present, they occur only on the two large Sunda‐shelf islands of Sumatra and Borneo. Most researchers recognize two separate subspecies, Pongo pygmaeus abelii in Sumatra and P.p. pygmaeus in Borneo.1,2 Relative to other primates, they have a variety of unusual features. These large‐bodied frugivores are among the most solitary of anthropoid primates.3–5 They are also highly dimorphic, with the average body mass (78 kg) of males being more than twice that of females (36 kg).6 Despite its large body size the red ape has more specialized morphological adaptations for arboreality than do the African great apes. Researchers generally recognize sexually mature male orangutans with two physically distinct morphs, a phenomenon described as bimaturism. Males of the relatively smaller morph are known for forcing copulations with adult females.5,7–9.

Human social behaviour is the product of million of years of evolution. The details of the chronological and phylogenetic context in which human behaviour evolved can provide information about both the historical depth of specific behaviours and the reasons undelying their evolution. The chronological framework is described, and the ecological basis for human social evolution discussed. Eigth key 'events' and time periods are identified : 35 Million years ago (35 Myr), 25 Myr, 15 Myr, 5 Myr, 2 Myr, 300.000 years ago (300 Kyr), 100 Kyr and 30 Kyr. Critical developments occur in this periods when such attributes as compulsive sociality, male kin-bonding and changes in life history strategy and parenting behaviour occur. It is argued that a key factor in hominid social evolution is the conjonction of male kin-bonding and selection for energetically expensive offspring ; that the shift to modern human behaviour occurs over a prolonged period in excess of 200 Kyr; and that the human evolutionary heritage (the EEA) is not unitary

Fission-fusion systems can have the group or the individual as their primary unit. In group-based fission-fusion systems, predation risk reduction is the major benefit to grouping, in the individual-based ones the benefits are likely to be primarily social. Orangutans, like chimpanzees, are examples of an individual-based fission-fusion species. The orangutans inhabiting a Sumatran swamp forest (Suaq Balimbing) are more likely than elsewhere to form travel parties. As elsewhere, the main benefits of grouping are social: mating opportunities, protection from harassment and socialization of infants. Most animals also incur costs, but these are relatively low at Suaq Balimbing due to the high productivity of the swamp. Costs seem to be disproportionately high for females with mid-sized infants, who avoid parties.

At Tanjung Puting, adolescent female orangutans were the most social of all age/sex classes and should not be described as solitary or even semi-solitary. Non-exclusive groupings involving adolescent females and subadult males were the associations most commonly seen at Tanjung Puting. Adolescent female interactions with adult males were almost totally restricted to consortships which the female initiated, maintained, and terminated. Adolescent female interactions with adult females were largely absent due to adult female agonism. This agonism probably relates to child-care constraints and food competition experienced by the adult female. Adolescent female interactions with subadult males involved long term associations in which no copulations took place and short term (<1 day) association in which “resisted mating” occurred. Overall, heterosexual associations were social. Adolescent females did not consort with subadult males. Adolescent female interactions with their own age/sex class were invariably social, and adolescent females always traveled together following encounters. Adolescent females were the only age/sex class observed to carry out interunit grooming. First parturition for wild orangutan females is estimated at approximately 14 or 15 years of age. Adolescent females experience a period of sterility which may exceed one year prior to first parturition. Adolescent females copulate at higher rates than do adult females. Adolescent females were the only age/sex class at Tanjung Puting to display high levels of proceptive behavior. This proceptive behavior, while not always successful, appeared crucial to inducing consorts to copulate. Adolescent females preferred adult males as sexual partners, but themselves were not preferred by adult males. A large amount of learning appears to take place during the orangutan’s adolescence as a result of increased sociality. Due to their small size, rapid travel and long day ranges, sociality probably is not as costly for adolescent female orangutans as it is for adults. Adolescent females probably benefit from associating with other orangutan units because, based on the age/sex class they are associating with, grouping provides: a) a potential context in which to learn adaptive solutions to social and/or environmental problems, b) increased foraging efficiency, c) protection from predators and/or “enemies,” and d) a potential context in which dominance and affiliative relations between individuals can be developed.

Abstract A group of orang-utans ( Pongo pygmaeus abelii ), consisting of one adult male, three females and two young, were observed at the Sedgwick County Zoo (Wichita, KS). A quick, reliable, time-sampling technique was used throughout the day under conditions of public exhibition. Social interactions were defined and recorded as associations based on contact between and among animals, and in terms of close spatial relationships without contact (non-contact association). The activities of the two offspring, of one of the adult females and the adult male were primarily responsible for social groupings with different animals which were not constrained by the conditions of captivity. The data gathered by this non-intrusive technique corroborated observations under other conditions reported in the literature including those of one of our animals in another zoo setting.