相关论文
2021 - Remote. Sens.
Groundwater Depletion Signals in the Beqaa Plain, Lebanon: Evidence from GRACE and Sentinel-1 Data

Regions with high productivity of agriculture, such as the Beqaa Plain, Lebanon, often rely on groundwater supplies for irrigation demand. Recent reports have indicated that groundwater consumption in this region has been unsustainable, and quantifying rates of groundwater depletion has remained a challenge. Here, we utilize 15 years of data (June 2002–April 2017) from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite mission to show Total Water Storage (TWS) changes in Lebanon’s Beqaa Plain. We then obtain complimentary information on various hydrologic cycle variables, such as soil moisture storage, snow water equivalent, and canopy water storage from the Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS) model, and surface water data from the largest body of water in this region, the Qaraaoun Reservoir, to disentangle the TWS signal and calculate groundwater storage changes. After combining the information from the remaining hydrologic cycle variables, we determine that the majority of the losses in TWS are due to groundwater depletion in the Beqaa Plain. Results show that the rate of groundwater storage change in the West Beqaa is nearly +0.08 cm/year, in the Rashaya District is −0.01 cm/year, and in the Zahle District the level of depletion is roughly −1.10 cm/year. Results are confirmed using Sentinel-1 interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) data, which provide high-precision measurements of land subsidence changes caused by intense groundwater usage. Furthermore, data from local monitoring wells are utilized to further showcase the significant drop in groundwater level that is occurring through much of the region. For monitoring groundwater storage changes, our recommendation is to combine various data sources, and in areas where groundwater measurements are lacking, we especially recommend the use of data from remote sensing.

2012 - 2012 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium
Grace time variable gravity field for monitoring natural hazards

The US/German twin satellite mission GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) [1] celebrated it's 10th anniversary March 17, 2012. The prime objective of GRACE is to provide detailed measurements of the static and, for the first time, also of the time-variable gravity field of the Earth. Today, GRACE delivers the most accurate map to date of the Earth's long wavelength gravity field. In view of global warming it can deliver substantial information about current and future trends concerning the global hydrology cycle, ocean currents and sea level rise and help to predict their impact on human live.

1997
Groundwater remediation and treatment technologies

This volume has been organized for practicing engineers who deal with the problems of groundwater and leachate remediation. It is intended to provide a practical overview of both techniques for evaluating groundwater quality and in selecting remediation technologies that are cost-effective. Emphasis is given to advanced remediation methods. Much of the information is compiled from reports prepared by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Individual chapters address principles of geology, the relationship between groundwater and surface water, principles of hydrogeology, groundwater contamination, groundwater restoration, pump-and-treat remediation technology, and treating contaminated groundwater and leachate. A compendium of groundwater and leachate treatment technologies and a summary table of pump-and-treat applications are appended. A glossary, list of abbreviations, and index are included.

2021 - Remote. Sens.
Using Swarm to Detect Total Water Storage Changes in 26 Global Basins (Taking the Amazon Basin, Volga Basin and Zambezi Basin as Examples)

The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite provides time-varying gravity field models that can detect total water storage change (TWSC) from April 2002 to June 2017, and its second-generation satellite, GRACE Follow-On (GRACE-FO), provides models from June 2018, so there is a one year gap. Swarm satellites are equipped with Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, which can be used to recover the Earth’s time-varying gravitational field. Swarm’s time-varying gravitational field models (from December 2013 to June 2018) were solved by the International Combination Service for Time-variable Gravity Field Solutions (COST-G) and the Astronomical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences (ASI). On a timely scale, Swarm has the potential to fill the gap between the two generations of GRACE satellites. In this paper, using 26 global watersheds as the study area, first, we explored the optimal data processing strategy for Swarm and then obtained the Swarm-TWSC of each watershed based on the optimal results. Second, we evaluated Swarm’s accuracy in detecting regional water storage variations, analyzed the reasons for its superior and inferior performance in different regions, and systematically explored its potential in detecting terrestrial water storage changes in land areas. Finally, we constructed the time series of terrestrial water storage changes from 2002 to 2019 by combining GRACE, Swarm, and GRACE-FO for the Amazon, Volga, and Zambezi Basins. The results show that the optimal data processing strategy of Swarm is different from that of GRACE. The optimal results of Swarm-TWSC were explored in 26 watersheds worldwide; its accuracy is related to the area size, runoff volume, total annual mass change, and instantaneous mass change of the watershed itself, among which the latter is the main factor affecting Swarm-TWSC. Knowledge of the Swarm-TWSC of 26 basins constructed in this paper is important to study long-term water storage changes in basins.

2014 - Asia-Pacific Environmental Remote Sensing
Detecting terrestrial water storage variations in northwest China by GRACE

The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellites provide a new quantitative measurement to observe terrestrial water storage (TWS) variations. In this paper, GRACE data were used to detect TWS changes (TWSC) in last decade in the arid region of northwest China. TWSC of the study area were obtained from RL05 Level 2 GRACE data between August 2002 and July 2013. These obtained GRACE based TWSC were thereafter validated against that calculated from global land data assimilation system (GLDAS) data. The validation showed TWSC from two sources were consistent. Together with precipitation, the analyses showed TWSC in this arid region changed over time, and responded sensitively to climate factors. Results indicated that TWSC showed distinct seasonal variation characteristics and the peaks of TWS appeared corresponding to precipitation. The summers of 2005 and 2012 were wet periods with a mean TWS higher than multiple-year average by about 30 mm, while the falls of 2008 and 2009 were dry seasons with a heavily deficit TWS, lower than multiple-year average by about -30 mm. The winter of 2008 was also in deficit but slightly better than the fall of same year. On average, in the last decade, the period of 2008 to 2009 was in the driest condition. Significant decreases in TWS in 2008 and 2009 were successfully detected by GRACE, and corresponded to drought events in the study area. This study showed in the last decade the changes of climate factors resulted in larger TWS variations in the arid region and proved the capability of GRACE in detecting larger-scale and long-term drought events in arid regions.

2019 - Journal of African Earth Sciences
GRACE and TRMM mission: The role of remote sensing techniques for monitoring spatio-temporal change in total water mass, Nile basin

Abstract Understanding the spatio-temporal changes of the terrestrial water mass behavior together with Enhanced models of natural water storage variation are imperative for better assessing, adapting better evaluable quantified hydrologic catchments. This study provides a reliable impact of the GRACE “gravity recovery and climate experiment” data to gain an independent water mass change on large regional scale. Using GRACE data sets, Terrestrial total Water Storage (TWS) are alternative index to investigate spatio-temporal water variation responses. This study focuses on the Nile basin and utilizes the integration of TWS extracted from GRACE data solutions and Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) data sets to interpret the average annual/seasonal variation of Terrestrial Total Water Mass. Terrestrial total Water Storage (TWS) was obtained from GRACE data on monthly basis over the period of January 2003–Jul 2016.156 gravity field solutions (RL06 unconstrained solutions) were analyzed and processed as follows: (1) Removing of temporal mean, destriping, smoothing with 250 km radius, (2) Generation of Trend and Standard deviation (SD) images over the entire period, (3) All mass anomalies derived from GRACE data were explicated as an indicator for water mass changes, (4) Topographic, geological and hydrological data were compared to the preformed SDGRACE spatial distribution anomalies utilizing GIS workspace data pool to recognize areas addressing major and significant temporal variations in mass considering the affecting parameters that lead to such observed rise in those variations. Generally, both the analyzed, processed GRACE and TRMM data sets as well as the resulted TWS, SD and trend images displayed a statistically increasing trend in the seasonal water mass over the entire Nile basin as an average in the investigated period (2003–2016). The results show a significant increasing trend during 2013–2016-time segment especially over the northern region.

2012
Groundwater change in the Murray basin from long- term in- situ monitoring and GRACE estimates

We present observations of groundwater change in a key, semi- arid, agricultural region of Australia, the Murray Groundwater Basin. Time series of in- situ groundwater levels archived in Government databases were compiled for all the States sharing this groundwater basin. A high quality subset of this dataset in a region affected by dryland salinity provides long-term in- situ observations on the respective impact of (1) increased recharge after deforestation and (2) the recent multi- year drought on groundwater levels. A change in the long- term dynamic of the water table is observed since the beginning of the drought in 1997 (1994 in some regions). The analysis of the bore data fi rst showed a regional rise of the water table by ! 5 cm/a from 1980 to 1992 followed by a regional decline at a rate of 17 cm/a from 1997 to 2009. Time series of groundwater storage anomalies obtained from a combination of total water storage using space gravimetry (GRACE) and soil moisture estimates from hydrological models also indicate a strong decline of the water table from 2002 to 2010. From August 2002 to December 2010, GRACE- based estimates indicate a groundwater loss of ! 18 ! 1.3 mm/a which equates to a total loss of groundwater of ! 45 ! 3 km 3 over the ! 300,000 km 2 hydrogeological basin. These observations suggest that the impact of the drought on groundwater recharge counterbalanced and surpassed the impacts of past land-clearing and has brought a temporary halt to dryland salinity.

2017 - Journal of Hydrometeorology
Comparison and Assessment of Three Advanced Land Surface Models in Simulating Terrestrial Water Storage Components over the United States

AbstractTo prepare for the next-generation North American Land Data Assimilation System (NLDAS), three advanced land surface models [LSMs; i.e., Community Land Model, version 4.0 (CLM4.0); Noah LSM with multiphysics options (Noah-MP); and Catchment LSM-Fortuna 2.5 (CLSM-F2.5)] were run for the 1979–2014 period within the NLDAS-based framework. Unlike the LSMs currently executing in the operational NLDAS, these three advanced LSMs each include a groundwater component. In this study, the model simulations of monthly terrestrial water storage anomaly (TWSA) and its individual water storage components are evaluated against satellite-based and in situ observations, as well as against reference reanalysis products, at basinwide and statewide scales. The quality of these TWSA simulations will contribute to determining the suitability of these models for the next phase of the NLDAS. Overall, it is found that all three models are able to reasonably capture the monthly and interannual variability and magnitudes of ...

2016 - Environmental Research Letters
Enhancing drought resilience with conjunctive use and managed aquifer recharge in California and Arizona

Projected longer-term droughts and intense floods underscore the need to store more water to manage climate extremes. Here we show how depleted aquifers have been used to store water by substituting surface water use for groundwater pumpage (conjunctive use, CU) or recharging groundwater with surface water (managed aquifer recharge, MAR). Unique multi-decadal monitoring from thousands of wells and regional modeling datasets for the California Central Valley and central Arizona were used to assess CU and MAR. In addition to natural reservoir capacity related to deep water tables, historical groundwater depletion further expanded aquifer storage by ~44 km3 in the Central Valley and by ~100 km3 in Arizona, similar to or exceeding current surface reservoir capacity by up to three times. Local river water and imported surface water, transported through 100s of km of canals, is substituted for groundwater (≤15 km3 yr−1, CU) or is used to recharge groundwater (MAR, ≤1.5 km3 yr−1) during wet years shifting to mostly groundwater pumpage during droughts. In the Central Valley, CU and MAR locally reversed historically declining water-level trends, which contrasts with simulated net regional groundwater depletion. In Arizona, CU and MAR also reversed historically declining groundwater level trends in active management areas. These rising trends contrast with current declining trends in irrigated areas that lack access to surface water to support CU or MAR. Use of depleted aquifers as reservoirs could expand with winter flood irrigation or capturing flood discharges to the Pacific (0–1.6 km3 yr−1, 2000–2014) with additional infrastructure in California. Because flexibility and expanded portfolio options translate to resilience, CU and MAR enhance drought resilience through multi-year storage, complementing shorter term surface reservoir storage, and facilitating water markets.

2009
Laser interferometer for spaceborne mapping of the Earth's gravity field

The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) is one of the present missions to map the Earth's gravity field. The aim of a GRACE follow-on mission is to map the gravitational field of the Earth with higher resolution over at least 6 years. This should lead to a deeper insight into geophysical processes of the Earth's system. One suggested detector for this purpose consists of two identical spacecraft carrying drag-free test masses in a low Earth orbit at an altitude of the order of 300 km, following each other with a distance on the order of 50 to 100 km. Changes in the Earth's gravity field will induce distance fluctuations between two test masses on separate spacecraft. These variations in the frequency range 1 to 100 mHz are to be monitored by a laser interferometer with nanometer precision. We present preliminary results of a heterodyne interferometer configuration using polarising optics, demonstrating the required phase sensitivity.

2006 - Studia Geophysica et Geodaetica
Wiener optimal filtering of GRACE data

We present a spatial averaging method for Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) gravity-field solutions based on the Wiener optimal filtering.The optimal filter is designed from the least-square minimization of the difference between the desired and filtered signals. It requires information about the power spectra of the desired gravitational signal and the contaminating noise, which is inferred from the average GRACE degree-power spectrum. We show that the signal decreases with increasing spherical harmonic degree j with approximately j−b, where b = 1.5 for GRACE data investigations. This is termed the Second Kaula rule of thumb for temporal variations of the Earth’s gravity field. The degree power of the noise increases, in the logarithmic scale, linearly with increasing j.The Wiener optimal filter obtained for the signal model with b = 1.5 closely corresponds to a Gaussian filter with a spatial half width of 4° (∼440 km). We find that the filtered GRACE gravity signal is relatively insensitive to the exponent b of the signal model, which indicates the robustness of Wiener optimal filtering. This is demonstrated using the GFZ-GRACE gravity-field solution for April 2004.

2015 - Journal of Hydrology
Characterization of snowmelt flux and groundwater storage in an alpine headwater basin

Summary Snowmelt recharge of groundwater and its delayed release is considered an important mechanism for sustaining the baseflow of alpine streams, but relatively little is known about groundwater storage capacity in alpine regions. The goal of this study is to quantify the storage capacity and the timing of recharge and discharge in a partially glaciated, first-order watershed in the Canadian Rockies using detailed measurements of hydrological input and output fluxes. We computed daily input fluxes from direct measurements of snow accumulation at 1300 points within the watershed near the peak accumulation date, time-lapse photography during the melt season, and high-resolution (25 m) snowmelt simulation using a field-validated snowmelt energy balance model; and estimated the amount and timing of water storage within the watershed from the water balance. The peak storage amount was on the order of 60–100 mm averaged over the watershed, which was relatively small compared to the pre-melt snow water equivalent in the watershed (500–640 mm), but significant in comparison to the fall and winter baseflow ( −1 ) sustaining the aquatic ecosystem. This is an important finding demonstrating the critical role of groundwater storage and delayed release in alpine environments, which generally have little soil water storage.

2010 - Journal of Geophysical Research
Ocean mass from GRACE and glacial isostatic adjustment

[1] We examine geoid rates and ocean mass corrections from two published global glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) models, both of which have been used in previous studies to estimate ocean mass trends from Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite gravity data. These two models are different implementations of the same ice loading history and use similar mantle viscosity profiles. The model results are compared with each other and with geoid rates determined from GRACE during August 2002 to November 2009. When averaged over the global ocean, the two models have rates that differ by nearly 1 mm yr−1 of ocean mass, with the first model giving a correction closer to 2 mm yr−1 and the second closer to 1 mm yr−1. By comparing the two models, we have discovered that 50% of the difference is caused by a global (land + ocean) mean in the first model. While it is appropriate to include this mean when subtracting GIA effects from measurements of sea level change measured by tide gauges or satellite altimetry, the mean should not be included when subtracting GIA effects from ocean mass variations derived from satellite gravity data. When this mean is removed, the ocean mass corrections from the two models still disagree by 0.4 mm yr−1. We trace the residual difference to the fact that the first model also has large trends over the ocean related to large rates in its predicted degree 2, order 1 geoid coefficients. Such oceanic trends are not observed by GRACE nor are they predicted by the second model, and they are shown to be inconsistent with the polar wander rates predicted by the first model itself. If these two problems are corrected, we find that the two model predictions agree at the 3% level. On the basis of this analysis, we conclude that the ocean mass correction for GRACE is closer to 1 mm yr−1 than 2 mm yr−1, although significant uncertainties remain.

2006 - Water Resources Research
Assessment of Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) temporal signature over the upper Zambezi

The temporal signature of terrestrial storage changes inferred from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) has been assessed by comparison with outputs from a calibrated hydrological model (lumped elementary watershed (LEW)) of the upper Zambezi and surroundings and an inspection of the within?month ground track coverage of GRACE together with spatial?temporal rainfall patterns. The comparison of the hydrological model with GRACE reveals temporal inconsistencies between both data sets. Because the LEW model has been calibrated and validated with independent data sources, we believe that this is a GRACE artifact. The within?month ground track coverage shows an irregular orbit behavior which may well cause aliasing in the GRACE monthly deconvolutions. This aliasing is the most probable cause of observed temporal inconsistencies between GRACE and other data sets.

2009 - Journal of Geodesy
Alternative mission architectures for a gravity recovery satellite mission

Since its launch in 2002, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission has been providing measurements of the time-varying Earth gravity field. The GRACE mission architecture includes two satellites in near-circular, near-polar orbits separated in the along-track direction by approximately 220 km (e.g. collinear). A microwave ranging instrument measures changes in the distance between the spacecraft, while accelerometers on each spacecraft are used to measure changes in distance due to non-gravitational forces. The fact that the satellites are in near-polar orbits coupled with the fact that the inter-satellite range measurements are directed in the along-track direction, contributes to longitudinal striping in the estimated gravity fields. This paper examines four candidate mission architectures for a future gravity recovery satellite mission to assess their potential in measuring the gravity field more accurately than GRACE. All satellites were assumed to have an improved measurement system, with an inter-satellite laser ranging instrument and a drag-free system for removal of non-gravitational accelerations. Four formations were studied: a two-satellite collinear pair similar to GRACE; a four-satellite architecture with two collinear pairs; a two-satellite cartwheel formation; and a four-satellite cartwheel formation. A cartwheel formation consists of satellites performing in-plane, relative elliptical motion about their geometric center, so that inter-satellite measurements are, at times, directed radially (e.g. parallel to the direction towards the center of the Earth) rather than along-track. Radial measurements, unlike along-track measurements, have equal sensitivity to mass distribution in all directions along the Earth’s surface and can lead to higher spatial resolution in the derived gravity field. The ability of each architecture to recover the gravity field was evaluated using numerical simulations performed with JPL’s GIPSY-OASIS software package. Thirty days of data were used to estimate gravity fields complete to degree and order 60. Evaluations were done for 250 and 400 km nominal orbit altitudes. The sensitivity of the recovered gravity field to under-sampled effects was assessed using simulated errors in atmospheric/ocean dealiasing (AOD) models. Results showed the gravity field errors associated with the four-satellite cartwheel formation were approximately one order of magnitude lower than the collinear satellite pair when only measurement system errors were included. When short-period AOD model errors were introduced, the gravity field errors for each formation were approximately the same. The cartwheel formations eliminated most of the longitudinal striping seen in the gravity field errors. A covariance analysis showed the error spectrum of the cartwheel formations to be lower and more isotropic than that of the collinear formations.

2009 - Geophysical Journal International
Evaluation of GRACE filter tools from a hydrological perspective

SUMMARY Approximately seven years of time-variable gravity data from the satellite mission Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) are available to quantify present-day mass variations on and near the Earth's surface. Mass variations caused by the continental water cycle are the dominant signal component after subtracting contributions from atmosphere and oceans. This makes hydrology a primary area of application of GRACE data. To derive water storage variations at the scale of large river basins, appropriate filter techniques have to be applied to GRACE gravity fields given in a global spherical harmonic representation. A desirable filter technique minimises both GRACE data error and signal leakage across the border of the region of interest. This study evaluates the performance of six widely used filter methods (isotropic filters, anisotropic filters and decorrelation methods) and their parameter values to derive regionally averaged water mass variations from GRACE data. To this end, filtered time series from GRACE for 22 of the world's largest river basins were compared to continental water mass variations from a multimodel mean of three global hydrological models (WGHM, GLDAS and LaD). Filter-induced biases for seasonal amplitudes and phases of water storage variations, as well as satellite and leakage error budgets, were quantified for each river basin and explained in terms of storage variations in and around the basin. The optimum filter types and filter parameters were identified for each basin. The best results were provided by a decorrelation method that uses GRACE orbits for the filter design. Our ranking between all filter types and parameters depended on the geographical location, shape and signal characteristics of the specific river basin. Based on a multicriterial evaluation of satellite and leakage error, as well as an error assessment of the hydrological data, the filter selection and parameter optimisation results were shown to be reliable for 17 river basins. The results serve as a guideline for the optimal filtering of GRACE global spherical harmonic coefficients for hydrological applications.

2010 - Water Resources Research
The 2009 exceptional Amazon flood and interannual terrestrial water storage change observed by GRACE

[1] The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite gravity mission provides a new capability for measuring extreme climate events, such as floods and droughts associated with large‐scale terrestrial water storage (TWS) change. GRACE gravity measurements show significant TWS increases in the lower Amazon basin in the first half of 2009, clearly associated with the exceptional flood season in that region. The extended record of GRACE monthly gravity solutions reveals the temporal and spatial evolution of both nonseasonal and interannual TWS change in the Amazon basin over the 7 year mission period from April 2002 to August 2009. GRACE observes a very dry season in 2002–2003 and an extremely wet season in 2009. In March 2009 (approximately the peak of the recent Amazon flood), total TWS surplus in the entire Amazon basin is ∼624 ± 32 Gt, roughly equal to U.S. water consumption for a year. GRACE measurements are consistent with precipitation data. Interannual TWS changes in the Amazon basin are closely connected to ENSO events in the tropical Pacific. The 2002–2003 dry season is clearly tied to the 2002–2003 El Nino and the 2009 flood to the recent La Nina event. The most significant contribution of this study in the area of water resources is to confront the hydrological community with the latest results of the GRACE satellite mission and further demonstrates the unique strength of GRACE and follow‐up satellite gravity observations for measuring large‐scale extreme climate events.

2005 - Geophysical Research Letters
Greenland mass balance from GRACE

[1] We use 22 monthly GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) gravity fields to estimate the linear trend in Greenland ice mass during 2002–2004. We recover a decrease in total ice mass of 82 ± 28 km3 of ice per year, consistent with estimates from other techniques. Our uncertainty estimate is dominated by the effects of GRACE measurement errors and errors in our post glacial rebound (PG) correction. The main advantages of GRACE are that it is sensitive to the entire ice sheet, and that it provides mass estimates with only minimal use of supporting physical assumptions or ancillary data.

2012 - Journal of Geodesy
Separation of global time-variable gravity signals into maximally independent components

The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) products provide valuable information about total water storage variations over the whole globe. Since GRACE detects mass variations integrated over vertical columns, it is desirable to separate its total water storage anomalies into their original sources. Among the statistical approaches, the principal component analysis (PCA) method and its extensions have been frequently proposed to decompose the GRACE products into space and time components. However, these methods only search for decorrelated components that on the one hand are not always interpretable and on the other hand often contain a superposition of independent source signals. In contrast, independent component analysis (ICA) represents a technique that separates components based on assumed statistical independence using higher-order statistical information. If one assumes that independent physical processes generate statistically independent signal components added up in the GRACE observations, separating them by ICA is a reliable strategy to identify these processes. In this paper, the performance of the conventional PCA, its rotated extension and ICA are investigated when applied to the GRACE-derived total water storage variations. These analyses have been tested on both a synthetic example and on the real GRACE level-2 monthly solutions derived from GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam (GFZ RL04) and Bonn University (ITG2010). Within the synthetic example, we can show how imposing statistical independence in the framework of ICA improves the extraction of the ‘original’ signals from a GRACE-type super-position. We are therefore confident that also for the real case the ICA algorithm, without making prior assumptions about the long-term behaviour or on the frequencies contained in the signal, improves over the performance of PCA and its rotated extension in the separation of periodical and long-term components.

2014
Estimating the human contribution to groundwater depletion in the Middle East, from GRACE data, land surface models, and well observations

Data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite mission are used to estimate monthly changes in total water storage across the Middle East during February 2003 to December 2012. The results show a large negative trend in total water storage centered over western Iran and eastern Iraq. Subtracting contributions from the Caspian Sea and two large lakes, Tharthar and Urmiah, and using output from a version of the CLM4.5 land surface model to remove contributions from soil moisture, snow, canopy storage, and river storage, we conclude that most of the long‐term water loss is due to a decline in groundwater storage. By dividing the region into seven mascons outlined along national boundaries and fitting them to the data, we find that the largest groundwater depletion is occurring in Iran, with a mass loss rate of 25 ± 3 Gt/yr during the study period. The conclusion of significant Iranian groundwater loss is further supported by in situ well data from across the country. Anthropogenic contributions to the groundwater loss are estimated by removing the natural variations in groundwater predicted by CLM4.5. These results indicate that over half of the groundwater loss in Iran (14 ± 3 Gt/yr) may be attributed to human withdrawals.

Monitoring Groundwater Storage Changes Using the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) Satellite Mission: A Review

Frédéric Frappart
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Guillaume Ramillien
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F. Frappart
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G. Ramillien

Abstract:The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite mission, which was in operation from March 2002 to June 2017, was the first remote sensing mission to provide temporal variations of Terrestrial Water Storage (TWS), which is the sum of the water masses that were contained in the soil column (i.e., snow, surface water, soil moisture, and groundwater), at a spatial resolution of a few hundred kilometers. As in situ level measurements are generally not sufficiently available for monitoring groundwater changes at the regional-scale, this unique dataset, combined with external information, is widely used to quantify the interannual variations of groundwater storage in the world’s major aquifers. GRACE-based groundwater changes revealed significant aquifer depletion over large regions, such as the Middle East, the northwest India aquifer, the North China Plain aquifer, the Murray-Darling Basin in Australia, the High Plains, and the California Central Valley aquifers in the United States of America (USA), but were also used to estimate groundwater-related parameters such as the specific yield, which relates groundwater level to storage, or to define the indices of groundwater depletion and stress. In this review, the approaches used for estimating groundwater storage variations are presented along with the main applications of GRACE data for groundwater monitoring. Issues that were related to the use of GRACE-based TWS are also addressed.

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引用
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