Schema Theory: An Information Processing Model of Perception and Cognition
The world is complex, and yet people are able to make some sense out of it. This paper offers an information-processing model to describe this aspect of perception and cognition. The model assumes that a person receives information which is less than perfect in terms of its completeness, its accuracy, and its reliability. The model provides a dynamic description of how a person evaluates this kind of information about a case, how he selects one of his pre-existing patterns (called schemata) with which to interpret the case, and how he uses the interpretation to modify and extend his beliefs about the case. It also describes how this process allows the person to make the internal adjustments which will serve as feedback for the interpretation of future information. A wide variety of evidence from experimental and social psychology is cited to support the decisions which went into constructing the separate parts of the schema theory, and further evidence is cited supporting the theory's system-level predictions. Since the schema theory allows for (but does not assume) the optimization of its parameters, it is also used as a framework for a normative analysis of the selection of schemata. Finally, a few illustrations from international relations and especially foreign-policy formation show that this model of how people make sense out of a complex world can be directly relevant to the study of important political processes.
Functional Organization of Social Perception and Cognition in the Superior Temporal Sulcus
The superior temporal sulcus (STS) is considered a hub for social perception and cognition, including the perception of faces and human motion, as well as understanding others' actions, mental states, and language. However, the functional organization of the STS remains debated: Is this broad region composed of multiple functionally distinct modules, each specialized for a different process, or are STS subregions multifunctional, contributing to multiple processes? Is the STS spatially organized, and if so, what are the dominant features of this organization? We address these questions by measuring STS responses to a range of social and linguistic stimuli in the same set of human participants, using fMRI. We find a number of STS subregions that respond selectively to certain types of social input, organized along a posterior-to-anterior axis. We also identify regions of overlapping response to multiple contrasts, including regions responsive to both language and theory of mind, faces and voices, and faces and biological motion. Thus, the human STS contains both relatively domain-specific areas, and regions that respond to multiple types of social information.
Auditory Expectation: The Information Dynamics of Music Perception and Cognition
Following in a psychological and musicological tradition beginning with Leonard Meyer, and continuing through David Huron, we present a functional, cognitive account of the phenomenon of expectation in music, grounded in computational, probabilistic modeling. We summarize a range of evidence for this approach, from psychology, neuroscience, musicology, linguistics, and creativity studies, and argue that simulating expectation is an important part of understanding a broad range of human faculties, in music and beyond.
The Perception and Cognition of Environmental Distance: Direct Sources of Information
Research on direct sources of information for the perception and cognition of environmental distance is reviewed. Environmental distances are relatively large and cannot be perceived in entirety from a single place.Directly-acquired knowledge of environmental distance is based on the sensorimotor apprehension of information fromthe body or from the environment during locomotion. The paper is organized around the idea that distance knowledge is derived from multiple, partially redundant information sources. After briefly discussing general issues, I review literature on direct sources of distance information,including environmental features, travel time, and travel effort. Theories of how these sources provide information about distance are considered. To date, only information from environmental features has received much empirical support as a direct source of distance knowledge, particularly to the extent that the features segment routes into vistas. Key weaknesses in the empirical literatureare discussed, and importantresearch directions are identified.
Mental States Follow Quantum Mechanics During Perception and Cognition of Ambiguous Figures
Processes undergoing quantum mechanics exhibit quantum interference effects. In this case, quantum probabilities result to be different from classical ones because they contain an additional so-called quantum interference term. We use ambiguous figures to analyse if during perception-cognition by human subjects we can observe violation of the classical probability field and the presence of quantum interference. The experiments, conducted on a group of 256 subjects, evidence that we indeed have such a quantum effect. Therefore, mental states, during perception and cognition of ambiguous figures, appear to follow quantum mechanics.
The Psychology of Being " Right " : The Problem of Accuracy in Social Perception and Cognition
Several difficulties are noted with general questions psychologists have been asking about human accuracy, such as whether people are typically accurate or inaccurate, what the boundary conditions for accuracy are, or the general process whereby accuracy may be improved. Instead, a situationally specific approach to accuracy is adopted in which a central role is assigned to the judgmental process. Accordingly, two general paradigms are distinguished addressing accuracy from realistic and phenomenal perspectives. The realist paradigm focuses on subjects' judgments and the degree to which these correspond to an external criterion. The phenomenal paradigm focuses on subjects' internal criterion as well as their perceptions of the target judgment and the judgment-to-criterion correspondence. Research possibilities in each paradigm are noted. It is suggested that attention to judgmental factors may extend accuracy work in previously unexplored directions.
The effect of culture on perception and cognition: A conceptual framework
Researchers are increasingly recognizing the role of culture as a source of variation in many phenomena of central importance to consumer research. This review addresses a gap in cross-cultural consumer behavior literature by providing a review and conceptual analysis of the effects of culture on pre-behavioral processes (perception and cognition). The article highlights a series of important perceptual and cognitive differences across cultures and offers a new perspective of framing these differences among cultures—that of “culturally conditioned” perceptual and cognitive orientations. The article addresses several theoretical issues and suggests directions for future research as well as managerial implications.
The Development of Music Perception and Cognition
Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the development of music perception and cognition. An adult listening attentively to a piece of music and understanding it performs an enormous amount of information processing very rapidly. Most of this processing is carried out automatically below the level of conscious analysis, because there is no time for reflective thought on each detail as the piece steadily progresses. This process is closely parallel to what happens when a native speaker of a language listens to and understands a sentence. A point to be emphasized is the ease and rapidity with which adults perform complex cognitive tasks in domains of speech and music familiar to them, and the degree to which that facility depends on prior experience. The implicit knowledge of adults is built on elements present even in infancy and the importance of melodic and rhythmic contours, the use of discrete, steady pitch levels, the organization of rhythmic patterns into a steady beat and an overlay of more complicated rhythms, and octave equivalence. These elements provide the groundwork for perceptual learning and acculturation throughout life to build upon.
Multidimensional Models of Perception and Cognition
Contents: F.G. Ashby, Multivariate Probability Distributions. Part I:Similarity, Preference, and Choice. J.L. Zinnes, D.B. MacKay, A Probabilistic Multidimensional Scaling Approach: Properties and Procedures. G. De Soete, J.D. Carroll, Probabilistic Multidimensional Models of Pairwise Choice Data. U. Bo"ckenholt, Multivariate Models of Preference and Choice. D.M. Ennis, K. Mullen, A General Probabilistic Model for Triad Discrimination, Preferential Choice, and Two-Alternative Identification. N.A. Perrin, Uniting Identification, Similarity and Preference: General Recognition Theory. Part II:Interactions Between Perceptual Dimensions. W.T. Maddox, Perceptual and Decisional Separability. H. Kadlec, J.T. Townsend, Signal Detection Analyses of Dimensional Interactions. T.D. Wickens, L.A. Olzak, Three Views of Association in Concurrent Detection Ratings. Part III:Detection, Identification, and Categorization. J.P. Thomas, L.A. Olzak, Simultaneous Detection and Identification. D.M. Ennis, Modeling Similarity and Identification When There Are Momentary Fluctuations in Psychological Magnitudes. A.A.J. Marley, Developing and Characterizing Multidimensional Thurstone and Luce Models for Identification and Preference. Y. Takane, T. Shibayama, Structures in Stimulus Identification Data. R.M. Nosofsky, Exemplar-Based Approach to Relating Categorization, Identification, and Recognition. M.M. Cohen, D.W. Massaro, On the Similarity of Categorization Models. F.G. Ashby, Multidimensional Models of Categorization.
Music Perception and Cognition: A Review of Recent Cross-Cultural Research
Experimental investigations of cross-cultural music perception and cognition reported during the past decade are described. As globalization and Western music homogenize the world musical environment, it is imperative that diverse music and musical contexts are documented. Processes of music perception include grouping and segmentation, statistical learning and sensitivity to tonal and temporal hierarchies, and the development of tonal and temporal expectations. The interplay of auditory, visual, and motor modalities is discussed in light of synchronization and the way music moves via emotional response. Further research is needed to test deep-rooted psychological assumptions about music cognition with diverse materials and groups in dynamic contexts. Although empirical musicology provides keystones to unlock musical structures and organization, the psychological reality of those theorized structures for listeners and performers, and the broader implications for theories of music perception and cognition, awaits investigation.
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