Artificial intelligence: History, foundations, and philosophical issues

Publisher Summary This chapter outlines the history of artificial intelligence (AI), including its origins in Turing's work during World War IIand the fundamental developments in the field of AI. The chapter discusses the evolutionary computing, the microworld approach to AI, robotics, expert systems, commonsense reasoning, neuron-like computing, and situated AI. The chapter examines a number of philosophical issues in AI, including the Turing test and its motivation, AI and hypercomputation, and the “Godel Objection” to AI. Turing's intelligent machinery distinguished two different approaches to AI that are termed “top-down AI” and “bottom-up AI.” In the top-down AI, cognition is treated as a phenomenon independent of the particular details of the mechanism that is implementing it. Researchers in the bottom-up AI take the opposite approach. The difference between the two strategies is illustrated in the chapter by considering the task of building a system to discriminate between the letter “W” and other letters.

[1]  Carlo Cellucci,et al.  MATHEMATICAL LOGIC: WHAT HAS IT DONE FOR THE PHILOSOPHY OF MATHEMATICS? , 2005 .

[2]  A. Oettinger.  CXXIV. Programming a digital computer to learn , 1952 .

[3]  Paul J. Werbos,et al.  The Roots of Backpropagation: From Ordered Derivatives to Neural Networks and Political Forecasting , 1994 .

[4]  Edward E. Smith,et al.  An Invitation to cognitive science , 1997 .

[5]  Bruce G. Buchanan,et al.  On generality and problem solving: a case study using the DENDRAL program , 1970 .

[6]  Hava T. Siegelmann,et al.  Analog computation via neural networks , 1993, [1993] The 2nd Israel Symposium on Theory and Computing Systems.

[7]  Rodney A. Brooks,et al.  Elephants don't play chess , 1990, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[8]  John Haugeland,et al.  Artificial intelligence - the very idea , 1987 .

[9]  A. M. Uttley,et al.  Conditional Probability Machines and Conditioned Reflexes , 1956 .

[10]  Marvin Minsky,et al.  Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry , 1969 .

[11]  Mike Stannett,et al.  Computation and Hypercomputation , 2003, Minds and Machines.

[12]  Maja J. Matarić,et al.  Leaning to behave socially , 1994 .

[13]  J. Fodor.  The Modularity of mind. An essay on faculty psychology , 1986 .

[14]  J. Fodor.  The mind-body problem. , 1981, Scientific American.

[15]  J. C. Shaw,et al.  Empirical explorations of the logic theory machine: a case study in heuristic , 1899, IRE-AIEE-ACM '57 (Western).

[16]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  Hypercomputation: philosophical issues , 2004, Theor. Comput. Sci..

[17]  Francisco Antonio Doria,et al.  Classical physics and Penrose's thesis , 1991 .

[18]  Saul Traiger,et al.  Making the Right Identification in the Turing Test1 , 2000, Minds and Machines.

[19]  Donald Michie,et al.  Turing's Test and Conscious Thought , 1993, Artif. Intell..

[20]  A. A. Mullin,et al.  Principles of neurodynamics , 1962 .

[21]  W. MAYS,et al.  A Relay Machine for the Demonstration of Symbolic Logic , 1950, Nature.

[22]  Wladyslaw Kozaczuk,et al.  Enigma : how the German machine cipher was broken, and how it was read by the Allies in World War Two , 1984 .

[23]  Marian Boylan Pour-el,et al.  A computable ordinary differential equation which possesses no computable solution , 1979 .

[24]  B. J. Copeland,et al.  Alan Turing’s Forgotten Ideas in Computer Science , 1999 .

[25]  R. L. Beurle.  Properties of a mass of cells capable of regenerating pulses , 1956, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences.

[26]  John R. Searle,et al.  Minds, brains, and programs , 1980, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[27]  R. A. Brooks,et al.  Intelligence without Representation , 1991, Artif. Intell..

[28]  James H. Moor,et al.  An analysis of the turing test , 1976 .

[29]  James H. Moor.  The Turing Test , 2003 .

[30]  K. Sterelny.  The Representational Theory Of Mind , 1991 .

[31]  Samuel D. Guttenplan,et al.  A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind , 2002 .

[32]  Joseph R. Shoenfield,et al.  Mathematical logic , 1967 .

[33]  J. Searle,et al.  Minds, Brains and Science , 1988 .

[34]  John McCarthy,et al.  What Computers Still Can't Do , 1996, Artif. Intell..

[35]  E. Thorndike.  A theory of the action of the after-effects of a connection upon it. , 1933 .

[36]  Cynthia Breazeal,et al.  Learning From and About Others: Towards Using Imitation to Bootstrap the Social Understanding of Others by Robots , 2005, Artificial Life.

[37]  Gerald DeJong,et al.  Skimming Newspaper Stories by Computer , 1977, IJCAI.

[38]  J. Searle,et al.  Is the brain's mind a computer program? , 1990, Scientific American.

[39]  R. French.  Subcognition and the Limits of the TuringTest , 1990 .

[40]  Bernard Widrow,et al.  Adaptive switching circuits , 1988 .

[41]  James H. Moor,et al.  The Status and Future of the Turing Test , 2001, Minds and Machines.

[42]  R. French.  The Turing Test: the first 50 years , 2000, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[43]  A. Komar.  UNDECIDABILITY OF MACROSCOPICALLY DISTINGUISHABLE STATES IN QUANTUM FIELD THEORY , 1964 .

[44]  Christopher G. Langton,et al.  Studying artificial life with cellular automata , 1986 .

[45]  Roger Penrose,et al.  Shadows of the mind - a search for the missing science of consciousness , 1994 .

[46]  Barr and Feigenbaum Edward A. Avron,et al.  The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence , 1981 .

[47]  D. Michie.  GAME-PLAYING AND GAME-LEARNING AUTOMATA , 1966 .

[48]  Martin Campbell-Kelly,et al.  Christopher Strachey, 1916-1975: A Biographical Note , 1985, Annals of the History of Computing.

[49]  Allen Newell,et al.  Computer science as empirical inquiry: symbols and search , 1976, CACM.

[50]  L. Rowell Huesmann,et al.  The thinking computer : mind inside matter , 1977 .

[51]  B. Jack Copeland.  The origins and development of the ACE project , 2005 .

[52]  Terry Winograd,et al.  Understanding natural language , 1974 .

[53]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  On Alan Turing's anticipation of connectionism , 1996, Synthese.

[54]  Martin Davis,et al.  Alan M. Turing: Frontmatter , 1961 .

[55]  Mike Stannett,et al.  X-machines and the halting problem: Building a super-turing machine , 1990, Formal Aspects of Computing.

[56]  Bruno Scarpellini.  Zwei Unentscheidbare Probleme Der Analysis , 1963 .

[57]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  Artificial Intelligence: A Philosophical Introduction , 1993 .

[58]  P. Werbos,et al.  Beyond Regression : "New Tools for Prediction and Analysis in the Behavioral Sciences , 1974 .

[59]  Joseph Weizenbaum,et al.  and Machine , 1977 .

[60]  Ramanathan V. Guha,et al.  Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems: Representation and Inference in the Cyc Project , 1990 .

[61]  M. Beardsley.  Science behind the Wall. East Germany's liberated scientists regroup. , 1990, Scientific American.

[62]  J. Searle.  The Rediscovery of the Mind , 1992 .

[63]  Robert Epstein,et al.  The Quest for the Thinking Computer , 1992, AI Mag..

[64]  Matthias Scheutz.  Narrow versus Wide Mechanism , 2003 .

[65]  C. Breazeal,et al.  That Certain Look: Social Amplification of Animate Vision , 2000 .

[66]  A. Turing.  On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. , 1937 .

[67]  V. Braitenberg.  Vehicles, Experiments in Synthetic Psychology , 1984 .

[68]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  The Church-Turing Thesis , 2007 .

[69]  H. Dreyfus.  Mind Over Machine , 1986 .

[70]  Douglas B. Lenat,et al.  On the thresholds of knowledge , 1987, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Artificial Intelligence for Industrial Applications.

[71]  Susan G. Sterrett,et al.  Turing's Two Tests for Intelligence* , 2000, Minds and Machines.

[72]  W. S. Faught,et al.  Can psychiatrists distinguish a computer simulation of paranoia from the real thing? The limitations of Turing-like test as measures of the adequacy of simulations. , 1979, Journal of psychiatric research.

[73]  Rodney A. Brooks,et al.  Cambrian Intelligence: The Early History of the New AI , 1999 .

[74]  John H. Holland,et al.  Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems: An Introductory Analysis with Applications to Biology, Control, and Artificial Intelligence , 1992 .

[75]  Rodney A. Brooks,et al.  Building brains for bodies , 1995, Auton. Robots.

[76]  Stuart M. Shieber.  Can Digital Computers Think , 2004 .

[77]  A. M. Turing,et al.  Can Automatic Calculating Machines Be Said to Think , 2004 .

[78]  Geoffrey E. Hinton,et al.  Learning representations by back-propagating errors , 1986, Nature.

[79]  I. Biederman,et al.  Dynamic binding in a neural network for shape recognition. , 1992, Psychological review.

[80]  G. Kreisel.  A Notion of Mechanistic Theory , 1974 .

[81]  W. A. Clark,et al.  Simulation of self-organizing systems by digital computer , 1954, Trans. IRE Prof. Group Inf. Theory.

[82]  Andrew Hodges,et al.  Alan Turing: The Enigma , 1983 .

[83]  Stephen G. Simpson,et al.  Degrees of Unsolvability: A Survey of Results , 1977 .

[84]  B. G. Farley,et al.  Generalization of pattern recognition in a self-organizing system , 1955, AFIPS '55 (Western).

[85]  Arthur L. Samuel,et al.  Some studies in machine learning using the game of checkers , 2000, IBM J. Res. Dev..

[86]  P. Churchland,et al.  Stalking the wild epistemic engine , 1983 .

[87]  Masaki Yamamoto.  Sozzy: a hormone-driven autonomous vacuum cleaner , 1994, Other Conferences.

[88]  R. Friedberg,et al.  TWO RECURSIVELY ENUMERABLE SETS OF INCOMPARABLE DEGREES OF UNSOLVABILITY (SOLUTION OF POST'S PROBLEM, 1944). , 1957, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[89]  N. Block.  Psychologism and Behaviorism , 1981 .

[90]  D. G. Prinz.  Robot chess , 1988 .

[91]  A. M. Turing,et al.  Computing Machinery and Intelligence , 1950, The Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence.

[92]  Mario Bunge,et al.  Philosophy of Psychology , 1987 .

[93]  F. Hara.  Artificial emotion of face robot through learning in communicative interactions with human , 2004, RO-MAN 2004. 13th IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (IEEE Catalog No.04TH8759).

[94]  Gerald E. Sacks,et al.  The Recursively Enumerable Degrees are Dense , 1964 .

[95]  E. Thorndike.  The law of effect. , 1927 .

[96]  Hava T. Siegelmann,et al.  Neural and Super-Turing Computing , 2003, Minds and Machines.

[97]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Investigating models of social development using a humanoid robot , 2003, Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, 2003..

[98]  Tomaso Poggio,et al.  Learning to see , 1996 .

[99]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  The Turing Test* , 2000, Minds and Machines.

[100]  Alan M. Turing,et al.  Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals , 2012, Alan Turing's Systems of Logic.

[101]  B. J. Copeland,et al.  The curious case of the Chinese gym , 1993, Synthese.

[102]  H. Hendriks-Jansen.  Catching Ourselves in the Act: Situated Activity, Interactive Emergence, Evolution, and Human Thought , 1996 .

[103]  C. S. Strachey,et al.  Logical or non-mathematical programmes , 1952, ACM '52.

[104]  Allen Newell,et al.  Physical Symbol Systems , 1980, Cogn. Sci..

[105]  Daniel C. Dennett,et al.  The practical requirements for making a conscious robot , 1994, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[106]  Russell Ruthen,et al.  Go with the Grain , 1990 .

[107]  Donald Michie,et al.  On Machine Intelligence , 1974 .

[108]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  Turing’s O-machines, Searle, Penrose and the brain , 1998 .

[109]  Igor Aleksander,et al.  Thinking machines: The search for artificial intelligence , 1987 .

[110]  A. Turing.  The chemical basis of morphogenesis , 1952, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences.

[111]  M. B. Pour-El,et al.  The wave equation with computable initial data such that its unique solution is not computable , 1981 .

[112]  B. Scassellati.  Imitation and Mechanisms of Shared Attention: A Developmental Structure for Building Social Skills , 2007 .

[113]  A. Tversky,et al.  Extensional versus intuitive reasoning: the conjunction fallacy in probability judgment , 1983 .

[114]  F ROSENBLATT,et al.  The perceptron: a probabilistic model for information storage and organization in the brain. , 1958, Psychological review.

[115]  A. M. Uttle.  The classification of signals in the nervous system. , 1954 .

[116]  Pamela McCorduck,et al.  Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence , 1979 .

[117]  J. Searle.  THE MYSTERY OF CONSCIOUSNESS , 2019, Intellectual Entertainments.

[118]  James B. Hartle,et al.  Computability and physical theories , 1986, 1806.09237.

[119]  Rodney A. Brooks,et al.  Intelligence Without Reason , 1991, IJCAI.

[120]  F. Attneave,et al.  The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory , 1949 .

[121]  George W. Ernst,et al.  GPS : a case study in generality and problem solving , 1971 .

[122]  W. Pitts,et al.  A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity (1943) , 2021, Ideas That Created the Future.

[123]  A. Church.  Review: A. M. Turing, On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem , 1937 .

[124]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Infant-like Social Interactions between a Robot and a Human Caregiver , 2000, Adapt. Behav..

[125]  A. Turing.  Intelligent Machinery, A Heretical Theory* , 1996 .

[126]  Roger C. Schank,et al.  SCRIPTS, PLANS, GOALS, AND UNDERSTANDING , 1988 .

[127]  B. Dickinson,et al.  The complexity of analog computation , 1986 .

[128]  James L. McClelland,et al.  On learning the past-tenses of English verbs: implicit rules or parallel distributed processing , 1986 .

[129]  Edward H. Shortliffe,et al.  Computer-based medical consultations, MYCIN , 1976 .

[130]  Roger Penrose,et al.  The nonalgorithmic mind , 1990, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[131]  B. Jack Copeland,et al.  The Broad Conception of Computation , 1997 .

[132]  James L. McClelland,et al.  Parallel distributed processing: explorations in the microstructure of cognition, vol. 1: foundations , 1986 .

[133]  Roger Penrose,et al.  Précis of The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning computers, minds, and the laws of physics , 1990, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[134]  N. Block.  The computer model of the mind , 1990 .

[135]  P M Churchland,et al.  Could a machine think? , 1990, Scientific American.

[136]  P. McLeod,et al.  Running to catch the ball , 1993, Nature.

[137]  J. Lucas.  Minds, Machines and Gödel , 1961, Philosophy.

[138]  Cynthia Breazeal,et al.  Toward Teaching a Robot "Infant" using Emotive Communication Acts , 1999 .

[139]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Alternative Essences of Intelligence , 1998, AAAI/IAAI.

[140]  B. Copeland,et al.  Beyond the universal Turing machine , 1999 .