Four routes of cognitive evolution.

Four routes of cognitive evolution are distinguished: phylogenetic construction, in which natural selection produces qualitative change to the way a cognitive mechanism operates (language); phylogenetic inflection, in which natural selection biases the input to a cognitive mechanism (imprinting and spatial memory); ontogenetic construction, in which developmental selection alters the way a cognitive mechanism operates (face recognition and theory of mind); and ontogenetic inflection, in which developmental selection changes the input to a cognitive mechanism (imitation). This framework integrates findings from evolutionary psychology (i.e., all research on the evolution of mentality and behavior). In contrast with human nativist evolutionary psychology, it recognizes the adaptive significance of developmental processes, conserves the distinction between cognitive and noncognitive mechanisms, and encompasses research on human and nonhuman animals.

[1]  Cecilia Heyes,et al.  Imitation by association , 2005 .

[2]  A. Whiten,et al.  How do apes ape? , 2004, Learning & behavior.

[3]  Robert C. Richardson,et al.  The prospects for an evolutionary psychology: Human language and human reasoning , 1996, Minds and Machines.

[4]  C. Heyes,et al.  Testing for imitative and nonimitative social learning in the budgerigar using a two-object/two-action test , 2002, Animal Behaviour.

[5]  Karen B. Strier,et al.  Are human beings part of the rest of nature? , 2002 .

[6]  Emily D. Klein,et al.  Imitative learning in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) using the bidirectional control procedure , 2002, Animal learning & behavior.

[7]  C. Heyes,et al.  Motor learning by observation: Evidence from a serial reaction time task , 2002, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology. A, Human experimental psychology.

[8]  A. Meltzoff,et al.  A PET Exploration of the Neural Mechanisms Involved in Reciprocal Imitation , 2002, NeuroImage.

[9]  Johan J. Bolhuis,et al.  A critique of the neuroecology of learning and memory , 2001, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[10]  J. Bolhuis,et al.  The evolution of intelligence: adaptive specializations versus general process , 2001, Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.

[11]  Sigrid S. Glenn,et al.  At last: Serious consideration , 2001, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[12]  C. Heyes.  Causes and consequences of imitation , 2001, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[13]  D. Hull,et al.  A general account of selection: Biology, immunology, and behavior , 2001, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[14]  O. Kaminuma,et al.  Antigen-Induced Airway Migration of a T Helper 2 Clone , 2001, International Archives of Allergy and Immunology.

[15]  T. Zentall,et al.  Imitative learning in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) depends on the motivational state of the observer quail at the time of observation. , 2001, Journal of comparative psychology.

[16]  R. Blair,et al.  Dissociation between 'theory of mind' and executive functions in a patient with early left amygdala damage. , 2001, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[17]  G. Turkewitz,et al.  No Compelling Evidence That Newborns Imitate Oral Gestures. , 2001, Infancy : the official journal of the International Society on Infant Studies.

[18]  Josh Weisberg,et al.  Jerry Fodor, The Mind Doesn't Work That Way , 2001 .

[19]  Cecilia Heyes,et al.  Evolutionary psychology in the round , 2001 .

[20]  G Aschersleben,et al.  Correspondence effects with manual gestures and postures: a study of imitation. , 2000, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[21]  P. Bloom,et al.  Two reasons to abandon the false belief task as a test of theory of mind , 2000, Cognition.

[22]  L Proteau,et al.  On the Cognitive Basis of Observational Learning: Development of Mechanisms for the Detection and Correction of Errors , 2000, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology. A, Human experimental psychology.

[23]  T. Paus,et al.  Modulation of cortical excitability during action observation: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study , 2000, Neuroreport.

[24]  Richard S. J. Frackowiak,et al.  Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. , 2000, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[25]  M. Tomasello,et al.  Chimpanzees know what conspecifics do and do not see , 2000, Animal Behaviour.

[26]  R. Hari,et al.  Temporal dynamics of cortical representation for action. , 2000, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[27]  Susan C. Johnson.  The recognition of mentalistic agents in infancy , 2000, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[28]  C. Heyes,et al.  What Is the Significance of Imitation in Animals , 2000 .

[29]  Michael Tomasello,et al.  Two hypotheses about primate cognition , 2000 .

[30]  Cecilia Heyes,et al.  Evolution of Cognition , 2001 .

[31]  S. Boissinot,et al.  Evolutionary Biology , 2000, Evolutionary Biology.

[32]  M. Litch,et al.  On Explaining Behavior , 2000 .

[33]  J. Mazziotta,et al.  Cortical mechanisms of human imitation. , 1999, Science.

[34]  A. Karmiloff-Smith,et al.  Cognitive modularity and genetic disorders. , 1999, Science.

[35]  D. Povinelli,et al.  Do chimpanzees tailor their gestural signals to fit the attentional states of others? , 1999, Animal Cognition.

[36]  L. Proteau,et al.  Cognitive Processes Underlying Observational Learning of Motor Skills , 1999 .

[37]  J. Russell,et al.  What do executive factors contribute to the failure on false belief tasks by children with autism? , 1999, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[38]  C. Heyes,et al.  Stimulus learning and response learning by observation in the European starling, in a two-object/two-action test , 1999, Animal Behaviour.

[39]  M. Tarr,et al.  Activation of the middle fusiform 'face area' increases with expertise in recognizing novel objects , 1999, Nature Neuroscience.

[40]  H. Brownell,et al.  Acquired `theory of mind' impairments following stroke , 1999, Cognition.

[41]  D. Povinelli,et al.  A Longitudinal Investigation of Chimpanzees' Understanding of Visual Perception , 1999 .

[42]  D. Povinelli,et al.  Comprehension of seeing as a referential act in young children, but not juvenile chimpanzees , 1999 .

[43]  M. Johnson.  Ontogenetic constraints on neural and behavioral plasticity: evidence from imprinting and face processing. , 1999, Canadian journal of experimental psychology = Revue canadienne de psychologie experimentale.

[44]  Margo I. Wilson,et al.  Human evolutionary psychology and animal behaviour , 1999, Animal Behaviour.

[45]  M. Tomasello,et al.  A nonverbal false belief task: the performance of children and great apes. , 1999, Child development.

[46]  N. Chater,et al.  Computational models and Rethinking innateness , 1999, Journal of Child Language.

[47]  P. Davies.  The conflict of evolutionary psychology. , 1999 .

[48]  A. Karmiloff-Smith.  Development itself is the key to understanding developmental disorders , 1998, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[49]  J. Decety,et al.  Top down effect of strategy on the perception of human biological motion: a pet investigation. , 1998, Cognitive neuropsychology.

[50]  R. Knight,et al.  Frontal Lobe Contributions to Theory of Mind , 1998, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[51]  M. Farah,et al.  What is "special" about face perception? , 1998, Psychological review.

[52]  Lawrence A. Shapiro,et al.  Evolutionary theory meets cognitive psychology: A more selective perspective , 1998 .

[53]  M. Haselton,et al.  Adaptations, exaptations, and spandrels. , 1998, The American psychologist.

[54]  E. Ullstadius.  Neonatal imitation in a mother infant setting , 1998 .

[55]  David A. Leavens,et al.  Theory of mind in nonhuman primates , 1998, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[56]  S. Shettleworth.  Cognition, evolution, and behavior , 1998 .

[57]  C. Frith,et al.  Mapping the Mind , 1998 .

[58]  Stein Bråten.  Intersubjective communication and emotion in early ontogeny , 1998 .

[59]  E. Procyk,et al.  Brain activity during observation of actions. Influence of action content and subject's strategy. , 1997, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[60]  A. Meltzoff,et al.  Explaining Facial Imitation: A Theoretical Model. , 1997, Early development & parenting.

[61]  N. Kanwisher,et al.  The Fusiform Face Area: A Module in Human Extrastriate Cortex Specialized for Face Perception , 1997, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[62]  A. Gopnik,et al.  Words, thoughts, and theories , 1997 .

[63]  S. S. Jones,et al.  Imitation or exploration? Young infants' matching of adults' oral gestures. , 1996, Child development.

[64]  M. Anisfeld,et al.  Only Tongue Protrusion Modeling Is Matched by Neonates , 1996 .

[65]  Tony Charman,et al.  Psychological Markers in the Detection of Autism in Infancy in a Large Population , 1996, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[66]  M. Tomasello.  CHAPTER 15 – Do Apes Ape? , 1996 .

[67]  B. Pennington,et al.  Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. , 1996, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[68]  Martha J. Farah,et al.  Face perception and within-category discrimination in prosopagnosia , 1995, Neuropsychologia.

[69]  A C Kamil,et al.  Performance of four seed-caching corvid species in operant tests of nonspatial and spatial memory. , 1995, Journal of comparative psychology.

[70]  G. Rizzolatti,et al.  Motor facilitation during action observation: a magnetic stimulation study. , 1995, Journal of neurophysiology.

[71]  N. Clayton.  Development of memory and the hippocampus: comparison of food-storing and nonstoring birds on a one-trial associative memory task , 1995, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[72]  K Inomata,et al.  Effects of Angle of Model-Demonstration on Learning of Motor Skill , 1995, Perceptual and motor skills.

[73]  M. Siegal,et al.  Deafness, conversation and theory of mind. , 1995, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[74]  A. Bailey,et al.  Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: evidence from a British twin study , 1995, Psychological Medicine.

[75]  Sara J. Shettleworth,et al.  Matching location and color of a compound stimulus: Comparison of a food-storing and a nonstoring bird species. , 1995 .

[76]  A. Whiten,et al.  Can Young Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes) Imitate Arbitrary Actions? Hayes & Hayes (1952) Revisited , 1995 .

[77]  R. Passingham,et al.  Functional anatomy of the mental representation of upper extremity movements in healthy subjects. , 1995, Journal of neurophysiology.

[78]  A C Kamil,et al.  Performance of four seed-caching corvid species in the radial-arm maze analog. , 1994, Journal of comparative psychology.

[79]  J. Mazziotta,et al.  Mapping motor representations with positron emission tomography , 1994, Nature.

[80]  P. Bateson,et al.  Imprinting and recognition memory: a neural net model , 1994, Animal Behaviour.

[81]  J. Krebs,et al.  Hippocampal growth and attrition in birds affected by experience. , 1994, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[82]  D. Brodbeck.  Memory for spatial and local cues: A comparison of a storing and a nonstoring species , 1994 .

[83]  U. Frith,et al.  Autism: beyond “theory of mind” , 1994, Cognition.

[84]  S. Healy,et al.  Development of hippocampal specialisation in two species of tit (Parus spp.) , 1994, Behavioural Brain Research.

[85]  L Proteau,et al.  On the cognitive processes underlying contextual interference and observational learning. , 1994, Journal of motor behavior.

[86]  E. Sober.  The adaptive advantage of learning and a priori prejudice , 1994 .

[87]  L. Cosmides,et al.  Mapping the mind: Origins of domain specificity: The evolution of functional organization , 1994 .

[88]  Elliott Sober.  From a biological point of view: Temporally oriented laws , 1994 .

[89]  S. Pinker.  The Language Instinct , 1994 .

[90]  L. Cosmides,et al.  Mapping the mind: Origins of domain specificity: The evolution of functional organization , 1994 .

[91]  S. Baron-Cohen,et al.  Do children with autism recognise surprise? A research note , 1993 .

[92]  F. Happé.  Communicative competence and theory of mind in autism: A test of relevance theory , 1993, Cognition.

[93]  S. Healy,et al.  Development of hippocampal specialisation in a food-storing bird , 1993, Behavioural Brain Research.

[94]  J. Bruner,et al.  Cultural learning. Author's reply , 1993 .

[95]  M. Marschark.  Psychological Development of Deaf Children , 1993 .

[96]  B. Schneuwly.  Cultural learning is cultural. [A commentary on Tomasello, Krugner and Ratner's "Cultural learning" Peer commentary by B. Schneuwly] , 1993 .

[97]  Schlaggar Bl,et al.  Patterning of the barrel field in somatosensory cortex with implications for the specification of neocortical areas. , 1993 .

[98]  S. Shettleworth.  Varieties of learning and memory in animals. , 1993, Journal of experimental psychology. Animal behavior processes.

[99]  D. O'Leary,et al.  Patterning of the barrel field in somatosensory cortex with implications for the specification of neocortical areas. , 1993, Perspectives on developmental neurobiology.

[100]  A. Whiten,et al.  On the Nature and Evolution of Imitation in the Animal Kingdom: Reappraisal of a Century of Research , 1992 .

[101]  Alan M. Leslie,et al.  Domain specificity in conceptual development: Neuropsychological evidence from autism , 1992, Cognition.

[102]  L. Jacoby,et al.  A Process-Dissociation Framework for Investigating Unconscious Influences: Freudian Slips, Projective Tests, Subliminal Perception, and Signal Detection Theory , 1992 .

[103]  A. Karlsen.  [Selection by consequences]. , 1992, Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening : tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke.

[104]  L. Cosmides,et al.  The Adapted Mind , 1992 .

[105]  Johan J. Bolhuis,et al.  MECHANISMS OF AVIAN IMPRINTING: A REVIEW , 1991, Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.

[106]  S. Gould.  Exaptation: A Crucial Tool for an Evolutionary Psychology , 1991 .

[107]  B. Glass.  The Rockefeller Foundation: Warren Weaver and the Launching of Molecular Biology , 1991, The Quarterly Review of Biology.

[108]  J. Perner,et al.  Does the autistic child have a metarepresentational deficit? , 1991, Cognition.

[109]  Mark H. Johnson,et al.  Newborns' preferential tracking of face-like stimuli and its subsequent decline , 1991, Cognition.

[110]  P. Harris,et al.  Belief‐Desire Reasoning among Baka Children: Evidence for a Universal Conception of Mind , 1991 .

[111]  J. Dunn,et al.  ‘You can cry, mum’: The social and developmental implications of talk about internal states , 1991 .

[112]  M. Anisfeld.  Neonatal imitation*1 , 1991 .

[113]  D. Rumelhart,et al.  Philosophy and Connectionist Theory , 1991 .

[114]  J. Bolhuis,et al.  Filial Imprinting and Associative Learning , 1990 .

[115]  Simon Baron-Cohen,et al.  Perceptual role taking and protodeclarative pointing in autism , 1989 .

[116]  David F. Sherry,et al.  Hippocampus and memory for food caches in black-capped chickadees , 1989 .

[117]  L. Cosmides.  The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task , 1989, Cognition.

[118]  S. Healy,et al.  Hippocampal specialization of food-storing birds. , 1989, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[119]  N. Mackintosh,et al.  An associative theory of the representation of stimuli: Applications to perceptual learning and latent inhibition. , 1989 .

[120]  G. Horn,et al.  Development of filial preferences in dark-reared chicks , 1988, Animal Behaviour.

[121]  A. J. Noordwijk.  Futuyma, D. J. 1986. Evolutionary Biology 2nd edition, Sinauer Associates Inc. Sunderland, Mass. , 1988 .

[122]  D. Schacter,et al.  The Evolution of Multiple Memory Systems , 1987 .

[123]  S. Carey,et al.  Why faces are and are not special: an effect of expertise. , 1986, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[124]  G. Horn,et al.  Interaction between acquired preferences and developing predispositions during imprinting , 1985, Animal Behaviour.

[125]  R. Kirk.  Language, Thought, and Other Biological Categories , 1985 .

[126]  B. Skinner,et al.  The evolution of behavior. , 1984, Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior.

[127]  Odmar Neumann,et al.  Automatic Processing: A Review of Recent Findings and a Plea for an Old Theory , 1984 .

[128]  S. Kosslyn,et al.  Representation without symbol systems , 1984 .

[129]  J. Atkinson,et al.  Human visual development over the first 6 months of life. A review and a hypothesis. , 1984, Human neurobiology.

[130]  R. B. Freeman,et al.  Cognition and Motor Processes , 1983 .

[131]  Eric Wanner,et al.  Language acquisition: the state of the art , 1982 .

[132]  G. Ferro-Luzzi.  On Evolutionary Epistemology , 1982, Current Anthropology.

[133]  S. Gould,et al.  Exaptation—a Missing Term in the Science of Form , 1982, Paleobiology.

[134]  Kenneth Mark Colby,et al.  Clinical artificial intelligence , 1981, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[135]  H. C. Plotkin,et al.  Indeterminacy is inherent in an inadequate model of evolution, not in nature , 1981, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[136]  F. Samejima.  Cognitive processes. , 2021, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation.

[137]  M. Eckardt.  The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map , 1980 .

[138]  Sandy Lovie.  How the mind works , 1980, Nature.

[139]  L. Nadel,et al.  The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map , 1978 .

[140]  D. Premack,et al.  Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? , 1978, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[141]  A. Meltzoff,et al.  Imitation of Facial and Manual Gestures by Human Neonates , 1977, Science.

[142]  R. Swinburne,et al.  The Philosophy of Karl Popper , 1975 .

[143]  C. C. Goren,et al.  Visual following and pattern discrimination of face-like stimuli by newborn infants. , 1975, Pediatrics.

[144]  S. Guttenplan.  Mind and language , 1975 .

[145]  E. Mayr,et al.  Behavior programs and evolutionary strategies. , 1974, American scientist.

[146]  P. Rozin,et al.  Specific hungers and poison avoidance as adaptive specializations of learning. , 1971, Psychological review.

[147]  R. Yin.  Looking at Upside-down Faces , 1969 .

[148]  R. Hinde,et al.  Advances in the study of behavior , 1966 .

[149]  Noam Chomsky,et al.  A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior , 1980 .

[150]  Waddington Ch,et al.  Canalization of Development and Genetic Assimilation of Acquired Characters , 1959 .

[151]  Noam Chomsky.  Review of B.F. Skinner, Verbal Behavior , 1959 .

[152]  C. Waddington.  Canalization of Development and the Inheritance of Acquired Characters , 1942, Nature.

[153]  K. Lorenz.  The Companion in the Bird's World , 1937 .

[154]  J. Stevens,et al.  Animal Intelligence , 1883, Nature.