Cooperation and Community Structure in Artificial Ecosystems

We review results on the evolution of cooperation based on the iterated Prisoner's Dilemma. Coevolution of strategies is discussed both in situations where everyone plays against everyone, and for spatial games. Simple artificial ecologies are constructed by incorporating an explicit resource flow and predatory interactions into models of coevolving strategies. Properties of food webs are reviewed, and we discuss what artificial ecologies can teach us about community structure.

[1]  R. Boyd.  Mistakes allow evolutionary stability in the repeated prisoner's dilemma game. , 1989, Journal of theoretical biology.

[2]  Manfred Milinski,et al.  Cooperation wins and stays , 1993, Nature.

[3]  Joel E. Cohen,et al.  Food web patterns and their consequences , 1991, Nature.

[4]  K. Havens,et al.  Scale and Structure in Natural Food Webs , 1992, Science.

[5]  Jonathan Roughgarden,et al.  A THEORY OF FAUNAL BUILDUP FOR COMPETITION COMMUNITIES , 1985, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[6]  S. McNaughton,et al.  Ecosystem-level patterns of primary productivity and herbivory in terrestrial habitats , 1989, Nature.

[7]  M. Nowak,et al.  A strategy of win-stay, lose-shift that outperforms tit-for-tat in the Prisoner's Dilemma game , 1993, Nature.

[8]  W. Hamilton.  The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. , 1964, Journal of theoretical biology.

[9]  M. Lombardo,et al.  Mutual Restraint in Tree Swallows: A Test of the TIT FOR TAT Model of Reciprocity , 1985, Science.

[10]  R. Boyd,et al.  No pure strategy is evolutionarily stable in the repeated Prisoner's Dilemma game , 1987, Nature.

[11]  S. Levin.  Community Equilibria and Stability, and an Extension of the Competitive Exclusion Principle , 1970, The American Naturalist.

[12]  Charles M. Newman,et al.  A stochastic theory of community food webs I. Models and aggregated data , 1985, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences.

[13]  Paulien Hogeweg,et al.  Spiral wave structure in pre-biotic evolution: hypercycles stable against parasites , 1991 .

[14]  M. Nowak,et al.  Evolutionary games and spatial chaos , 1992, Nature.

[15]  W. D. Valentine,et al.  The concepts of elasticity, invulnerability and invadability. , 1979, Journal of theoretical biology.

[16]  Robert M. May,et al.  How Many Species Are There on Earth? , 1988, Science.

[17]  Implicit Coalitions in a Generalized Prisoner's Dilemma , 1988 .

[18]  W. Hamilton,et al.  The Evolution of Cooperation , 1984 .

[19]  John D. Rummel,et al.  Some differences between invasion-structured and coevolution-structured competitive communities: a preliminary theoretical analysis , 1983 .

[20]  Michael P. Hassell,et al.  Spatial structure and chaos in insect population dynamics , 1991, Nature.

[21]  G. Polis,et al.  Complex Trophic Interactions in Deserts: An Empirical Critique of Food-Web Theory , 1991, The American Naturalist.

[22]  Sinauer Associates,et al.  Beyond the Prisoner's Dilemma: Toward Models to Discriminate among Mechanisms of Cooperation in Nature , 1992 .

[23]  R. Paine,et al.  Food-web analysis through field measurement of per capita interaction strength , 1992, Nature.

[24]  James A. Drake,et al.  The mechanics of community assembly and succession , 1990 .

[25]  K. Lindgren,et al.  Evolutionary dynamics of spatial games , 1994 .

[26]  Peter J. Taylor,et al.  The construction and turnover of complex community models having Generalized Lotka-Volterra dynamics , 1988 .

[27]  S Creel,et al.  Why cooperate? Game theory and kin selection. , 1993, Trends in ecology & evolution.

[28]  M. Milinski.  TIT FOR TAT in sticklebacks and the evolution of cooperation , 1987, Nature.

[29]  R. Trivers.  The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism , 1971, The Quarterly Review of Biology.

[30]  James A. Drake,et al.  Community-Assembly Mechanics and the Structure of an Experimental Species Ensemble , 1991, The American Naturalist.

[31]  Alan Roberts,et al.  Complex systems which evolve towards homeostasis , 1979, Nature.

[32]  F. W. Preston.  The Canonical Distribution of Commonness and Rarity: Part I , 1962 .

[33]  Flyvbjerg,et al.  Coevolution in a rugged fitness landscape. , 1992, Physical review. A, Atomic, molecular, and optical physics.

[34]  ROBERT M. MAY,et al.  Will a Large Complex System be Stable? , 1972, Nature.

[35]  P. Yodzis,et al.  The stability of real ecosystems , 1981, Nature.

[36]  R. Macarthur,et al.  COMPETITION, HABITAT SELECTION, AND CHARACTER DISPLACEMENT IN A PATCHY ENVIRONMENT. , 1964, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[37]  R. Paine.  Road Maps of Interactions or Grist for Theoretical Development , 1988 .

[38]  William A. Niering,et al.  Terrestrial Ecology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Islands , 1963 .

[39]  K. Kaneko.  Pattern dynamics in spatiotemporal chaos: Pattern selection, diffusion of defect and pattern competition intermettency , 1989 .

[40]  W. Post,et al.  Community assembly and food web stability , 1983 .

[41]  H. Simon,et al.  A mechanism for social selection and successful altruism. , 1990, Science.

[42]  Charles M. Newman,et al.  Stochastic structure and nonlinear dynamics of food webs: qualitative stability in a Lotka-Volterra cascade model , 1990, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. B. Biological Sciences.

[43]  MARK R. GARDNER,et al.  Connectance of Large Dynamic (Cybernetic) Systems: Critical Values for Stability , 1970, Nature.

[44]  P. Molander.  The Optimal Level of Generosity in a Selfish, Uncertain Environment , 1985 .

[45]  Roger Ware,et al.  Evolutionary stability in the repeated prisoner's dilemma , 1989 .

[46]  J. Neumann.  Zur Theorie der Gesellschaftsspiele , 1928 .

[47]  Takashi Ikegami,et al.  From genetic evolution to emergence of game strategies , 1994 .

[48]  M. Nowak,et al.  THE SPATIAL DILEMMAS OF EVOLUTION , 1993 .

[49]  M. Nowak,et al.  Tit for tat in heterogeneous populations , 1992, Nature.

[50]  K. Winemiller.  Spatial and Temporal Variation in Tropical Fish Trophic Networks , 1990 .

[51]  G. Wilkinson.  Reciprocal food sharing in the vampire bat , 1984, Nature.

[52]  G. Weisbuch,et al.  Emergence of mutualism: Application of a differential model to endosymbiosis , 1993 .

[53]  S. Gould,et al.  Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism , 1972 .

[54]  David B. Fogel,et al.  Evolving Behaviors in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma , 1993, Evolutionary Computation.

[55]  Alan Roberts,et al.  The robustness of natural systems , 1980, Nature.

[56]  Stuart L. Pimm,et al.  The determinants of food chain lengths , 1987 .

[57]  O. Leimar,et al.  The evolution of cooperation in mobile organisms , 1993, Animal Behaviour.

[58]  R. Axelrod.  An Evolutionary Approach to Norms , 1986, American Political Science Review.

[59]  J A Drake,et al.  Communities as assembled structures: Do rules govern pattern? , 1990, Trends in ecology & evolution.