Photorealistic rendering of mixed reality scenes

Photo‐realistic rendering of virtual objects into real scenes is one of the most important research problems in computer graphics. Methods for capture and rendering of mixed reality scenes are driven by a large number of applications, ranging from augmented reality to visual effects and product visualization. Recent developments in computer graphics, computer vision, and imaging technology have enabled a wide range of new mixed reality techniques including methods for advanced image based lighting, capturing spatially varying lighting conditions, and algorithms for seamlessly rendering virtual objects directly into photographs without explicit measurements of the scene lighting. This report gives an overview of the state‐of‐the‐art in this field, and presents a categorization and comparison of current methods. Our in‐depth survey provides a tool for understanding the advantages and disadvantages of each method, and gives an overview of which technique is best suited to a specific problem.

[1]  Carsten Dachsbacher,et al.  Reflective shadow maps , 2005, I3D '05.

[2]  P M Smith,et al.  A Department of Science (and Technology)? , 1995, Science.

[3]  Philipp Lensing,et al.  Instant indirect illumination for dynamic mixed reality scenes , 2012, 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR).

[4]  Patrick Cavanagh,et al.  Perceiving Illumination Inconsistencies in Scenes , 2005, Perception.

[5]  Anders Ynnerman,et al.  HDR light probe sequence resampling for realtime incident light field rendering , 2009, SCCG.

[6]  Jaakko Lehtinen,et al.  A framework for precomputed and captured light transport , 2007, TOGS.

[7]  Henrik Wann Jensen,et al.  Importance Sampling Spherical Harmonics , 2009, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[8]  Alexander A. Mury,et al.  Representing the light field in finite three-dimensional spaces from sparse discrete samples. , 2009, Applied optics.

[9]  Naokazu Yokoya,et al.  Real-time estimation of light source environment for photorealistic augmented reality , 2004, Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Pattern Recognition, 2004. ICPR 2004..

[10]  Yaser Sheikh,et al.  3D object manipulation in a single photograph using stock 3D models , 2014, ACM Trans. Graph..

[11]  Dieter Schmalstieg,et al.  Real-time photometric registration from arbitrary geometry , 2012, 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR).

[12]  Maarten Vergauwen,et al.  3D Reconstruction from Multiple Images: Part 1 - Principles , 2009, Found. Trends Comput. Graph. Vis..

[13]  Kei Iwasaki,et al.  Precomputed Radiance Transfer for Dynamic Scenes Taking into Account Light Interreflection , 2007, Rendering Techniques.

[14]  Hans-Peter Seidel,et al.  Accurate light source acquisition and rendering , 2003, ACM Trans. Graph..

[15]  Alexei A. Efros,et al.  Synthesizing Environment Maps from a Single Image , 2010 .

[16]  Jan Kautz,et al.  The State of the Art in Interactive Global Illumination , 2012, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[17]  Katsushi Ikeuchi,et al.  Acquiring a Radiance Distribution to Superimpose Virtual Objects onto Real Scene , 2001, MVA.

[18]  Claus B. Madsen,et al.  Towards Probe-Less Augmented Reality - A Position Paper , 2008, GRAPP.

[19]  Norimichi Tsumura,et al.  Estimating the Directions to Light Sources Using Images of Eye for Reconstructing 3D Human Face , 2003, CIC.

[20]  Pierre Poulin,et al.  Efficient product sampling using hierarchical thresholding , 2008, The Visual Computer.

[21]  Alexei A. Efros,et al.  Estimating natural illumination from a single outdoor image , 2009, 2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision.

[22]  Anders Ynnerman,et al.  Densely sampled light probe sequences for spatially variant image based lighting , 2006, GRAPHITE '06.

[23]  Erik Reinhard,et al.  Compositing images through light source detection , 2010, Comput. Graph..

[24]  Richard Szeliski,et al.  Creating full view panoramic image mosaics and environment maps , 1997, SIGGRAPH.

[25]  Andrew Gardner,et al.  Capturing and Rendering with Incident Light Fields , 2003, Rendering Techniques.

[26]  P. Hanrahan,et al.  Triple product wavelet integrals for all-frequency relighting , 2004, SIGGRAPH 2004.

[27]  Thomas Bashford-Rogers,et al.  Importance Driven Environment Map Sampling , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics.

[28]  Thorsten Grosch,et al.  Interactive Augmentation of Live Images using a HDR Stereo Camera , 2007, J. Virtual Real. Broadcast..

[29]  David J. Kriegman,et al.  A Planar Light Probe , 2006, 2006 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'06).

[30]  Anders Ynnerman,et al.  Temporally and spatially varying image based lighting using HDR-video , 2013, 21st European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO 2013).

[31]  Daniel Kurz,et al.  Real-time illumination estimation from faces for coherent rendering , 2014, 2014 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR).

[32]  Wolfgang Heidrich,et al.  Bidirectional importance sampling for direct illumination , 2005, EGSR '05.

[33]  D Schmalstieg,et al.  Augmented Reality: Theory and Practice , 2015 .

[34]  James F. Blinn,et al.  Texture and reflection in computer generated images , 1976, CACM.

[35]  Qunsheng Peng,et al.  Light source estimation of outdoor scenes for mixed reality , 2009, The Visual Computer.

[36]  Takahiro Okabe,et al.  Spherical harmonics vs. Haar wavelets: basis for recovering illumination from cast shadows , 2004, Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2004. CVPR 2004..

[37]  Shi-Min Hu,et al.  Data‐Driven Object Manipulation in Images , 2012, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[38]  Erik Reinhard,et al.  High Dynamic Range Imaging: Acquisition, Display, and Image-Based Lighting (The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Computer Graphics) , 2005 .

[39]  Kun Zhou,et al.  Interactive relighting with dynamic BRDFs , 2007, SIGGRAPH 2007.

[40]  Robert L. Cook,et al.  Distributed ray tracing , 1984, SIGGRAPH.

[41]  Tomoyuki Nishita,et al.  A montage method: the overlaying of the computer generated images onto a background photograph , 1986, SIGGRAPH.

[42]  Thorsten Grosch PanoAR: INTERACTIVE AUGMENTATION OF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL IMAGES WITH CONSISTENT LIGHTING , 2005 .

[43]  Wolfgang Heidrich,et al.  Sequential Sampling for Dynamic Environment Map Illumination , 2022 .

[44]  Akira Kojima,et al.  The hand as a shading probe , 2013, SIGGRAPH '13.

[45]  Kenny Mitchell,et al.  The shading probe: fast appearance acquisition for mobile AR , 2013, SA '13.

[46]  Tomas Akenine-Möller,et al.  Practical Product Importance Sampling for Direct Illumination , 2008, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[47]  A. Fournier,et al.  Common Illumination between Real and Computer Generated Scenes , 1992 .

[48]  Kalyan Sunkavalli,et al.  Automatic Scene Inference for 3D Object Compositing , 2014, ACM Trans. Graph..

[49]  Thorsten Grosch,et al.  Differential Photon Mapping - Consistent Augmentation of Photographs with Correction of all Light Paths , 2005, Eurographics.

[50]  Ron O Dror,et al.  Statistical characterization of real-world illumination. , 2004, Journal of vision.

[51]  Yang Wang,et al.  Estimation of multiple directional light sources for synthesis of augmented reality images , 2002, Graph. Model..

[52]  Pascal Fua,et al.  SLIC Superpixels Compared to State-of-the-Art Superpixel Methods , 2012, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[53]  Anders Ynnerman,et al.  Spatially varying image based lighting by light probe sequences , 2007, The Visual Computer.

[54]  H. Farid,et al.  Image forgery detection , 2009, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine.

[55]  Andrew I. Comport,et al.  3D High Dynamic Range dense visual SLAM and its application to real-time object re-lighting , 2013, 2013 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR).

[56]  Pradeep Sen,et al.  A versatile HDR video production system , 2011, SIGGRAPH 2011.

[57]  Hans-Peter Seidel,et al.  Importance sampling for video environment maps , 2005, SIGGRAPH '05.

[58]  Shi-Min Hu,et al.  Spherical Piecewise Constant Basis Functions for All-Frequency Precomputed Radiance Transfer , 2008, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics.

[59]  Stefan Gustavson,et al.  Unified HDR reconstruction from raw CFA data , 2013, IEEE International Conference on Computational Photography (ICCP).

[60]  Peter-Pike J. Sloan,et al.  Local, deformable precomputed radiance transfer , 2005, ACM Trans. Graph..

[61]  Pat Hanrahan,et al.  Triple product wavelet integrals for all-frequency relighting , 2004, ACM Trans. Graph..

[62]  Jian Sun,et al.  Guided Image Filtering , 2010, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[63]  Jonas Unger,et al.  Real-time Image Based Lighting with Streaming HDR-light Probe Sequences , 2012, SIGRAD.

[64]  Paul Debevec,et al.  Inverse global illumination: Recovering re?ectance models of real scenes from photographs , 1998 .

[65]  Peter-Pike J. Sloan,et al.  Clustered principal components for precomputed radiance transfer , 2003, ACM Trans. Graph..

[66]  Paul Graham,et al.  A single-shot light probe , 2012, SIGGRAPH '12.

[67]  Alexei A. Efros,et al.  Photo clip art , 2007, ACM Trans. Graph..

[68]  P. Hanrahan,et al.  On the relationship between radiance and irradiance: determining the illumination from images of a convex Lambertian object. , 2001, Journal of the Optical Society of America. A, Optics, image science, and vision.

[69]  Stefan Gustavson,et al.  High-dynamic-range video for photometric measurement of illumination , 2007, Electronic Imaging.

[70]  Xavier Granier,et al.  Online Tracking of Outdoor Lighting Variations for Augmented Reality with Moving Cameras , 2012, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics.

[71]  Hans-Peter Seidel,et al.  Imperfect shadow maps for efficient computation of indirect illumination , 2008, SIGGRAPH Asia '08.

[72]  Pat Hanrahan,et al.  A signal-processing framework for inverse rendering , 2001, SIGGRAPH.

[73]  Ce Liu,et al.  Depth Transfer: Depth Extraction from Video Using Non-Parametric Sampling , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[74]  Fabio Pellacini,et al.  envyLight: an interface for editing natural illumination , 2010, ACM Trans. Graph..

[75]  Alexei A. Efros,et al.  Estimating the Natural Illumination Conditions from a Single Outdoor Image , 2012, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[76]  Gustavo Patow,et al.  A Survey of Inverse Rendering Problems , 2003, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[77]  Steven M. Seitz,et al.  Photo tourism: exploring photo collections in 3D , 2006, ACM Trans. Graph..

[78]  Reflective and Refractive Objects for Mixed Reality , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics.

[79]  Johan Dahlin,et al.  Real-time video based lighting using GPU raytracing , 2014, 2014 22nd European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO).

[80]  Paul E. Debevec,et al.  Rendering synthetic objects into real scenes: bridging traditional and image-based graphics with global illumination and high dynamic range photography , 1998, SIGGRAPH '08.

[81]  Pieter Peers,et al.  Relighting with 4D incident light fields , 2003, ACM Trans. Graph..

[82]  C. R. Hoffman,et al.  Illumination and Reflection Maps : Simulated Objects in Simulated and Real Environments Gene , 1984 .

[83]  Mei Han,et al.  Interactive construction of 3D models from panoramic mosaics , 1998, Proceedings. 1998 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (Cat. No.98CB36231).

[84]  Alexei A. Efros,et al.  Understanding and Recreating Visual Appearance Under Natural Illumination , 2011 .

[85]  Barbara Anne Dosher,et al.  Orientation bandwidth of selective adaptation , 2004 .

[86]  Paul E. Debevec,et al.  Variance minimization light probe sampling , 2009, SIGGRAPH '09.

[87]  D. W. F. van Krevelen,et al.  A Survey of Augmented Reality Technologies, Applications and Limitations , 2010, Int. J. Virtual Real..

[88]  V. Ostromoukhov,et al.  Fast hierarchical importance sampling with blue noise properties , 2004, SIGGRAPH 2004.

[89]  Pradeep Sen,et al.  A versatile HDR video production system , 2011, ACM Trans. Graph..

[90]  Erik Reinhard,et al.  Real-time color blending of rendered and captured video , 2004 .

[91]  Jean Ponce,et al.  Accurate, Dense, and Robust Multiview Stereopsis , 2010, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[92]  Paolo Cignoni,et al.  Stereo Light Probe , 2008, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[93]  Shree K. Nayar,et al.  Eyes for relighting , 2004, ACM Trans. Graph..

[94]  Paul E. Debevec,et al.  Digitizing the Parthenon: Estimating Surface Reflectance Properties of a Complex Scene under Captured Natural Illumination , 2004, VMV.

[95]  Roberto Scopigno,et al.  EnvyDepth: An Interface for Recovering Local Natural Illumination from Environment Maps , 2013, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[96]  Sylvia C Pont,et al.  The Visual Light Field , 2007, Perception.

[97]  Bernhard P. Wrobel,et al.  Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision , 2001 .

[98]  Andrew J. Davison,et al.  Real-time surface light-field capture for augmentation of planar specular surfaces , 2012, 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR).

[99]  Serge J. Belongie,et al.  Structured importance sampling of environment maps , 2003, ACM Trans. Graph..

[100]  Hans-Peter Seidel,et al.  Interactive system for dynamic scene lighting using captured video environment maps , 2005, EGSR '05.

[101]  Yu-Ting Tsai,et al.  All-frequency precomputed radiance transfer using spherical radial basis functions and clustered tensor approximation , 2006, ACM Trans. Graph..

[102]  Elmar Eisemann,et al.  Real-Time Shadows , 2011 .

[103]  Jaakko Lehtinen,et al.  Matrix radiance transfer , 2003, I3D '03.

[104]  Jassim Happa,et al.  Rendering Interior Cultural Heritage Scenes Using Image-based Shooting , 2011, Eurographics.

[105]  Stephen DiVerdi,et al.  Envisor: Online Environment Map Construction for Mixed Reality , 2008, 2008 IEEE Virtual Reality Conference.

[106]  Bruce Walter,et al.  Visual equivalence: towards a new standard for image fidelity , 2007, ACM Trans. Graph..

[107]  Nancy Argüelles,et al.  Author ' s , 2008 .

[108]  Parris K. Egbert,et al.  Two Stage Importance Sampling for Direct Lighting , 2006, Rendering Techniques.

[109]  Mark Ollila,et al.  A Real Time Light Probe , 2004, Eurographics.

[110]  James T. Kajiya,et al.  The rendering equation , 1986, SIGGRAPH.

[111]  Rui Wang,et al.  All-frequency interactive relighting of translucent objects with single and multiple scattering , 2005, ACM Trans. Graph..

[112]  Sehat Ullah,et al.  A Survey on Augmented Reality Challenges and Tracking , 2016 .

[113]  Katsushi Ikeuchi,et al.  Illumination from Shadows , 2003, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[114]  Kei Iwasaki,et al.  Precomputed radiance transfer for dynamic scenes with diffuse interreflection , 2006, SIGGRAPH '06.

[115]  Haibin Ling,et al.  Sparse representation of cast shadows via ℓ1-regularized least squares , 2009, 2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision.

[116]  Kurt Debattista,et al.  Advanced High Dynamic Range Imaging: Theory and Practice , 2011 .

[117]  Qunsheng Peng,et al.  Lighting Simulation of Augmented Outdoor Scene Based on a Legacy Photograph , 2013, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[118]  Paul E. Debevec,et al.  Image-based lighting , 2002, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[119]  Francesco Banterle,et al.  Inverse tone mapping , 2006, GRAPHITE '06.

[120]  Derek Nowrouzezahrai,et al.  Eigentransport for efficient and accurate all-frequency relighting , 2007, GRAPHITE '07.

[121]  Andrew Jones,et al.  Direct HDR capture of the sun and sky , 2006, SIGGRAPH Courses.

[122]  Andrew Chi-Sing Leung,et al.  Spherical Q2-tree for sampling dynamic environment sequences , 2005, EGSR '05.

[123]  Marc Levoy,et al.  High performance imaging using large camera arrays , 2005, ACM Trans. Graph..

[124]  Kun Zhou,et al.  Radiance Transfer Biclustering for Real-Time All-Frequency Biscale Rendering , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics.

[125]  Thorsten Grosch,et al.  Consistent interactive augmentation of live camera images with correct near-field illumination , 2007, VRST '07.

[126]  Paul E. Debevec,et al.  Unlighting the Parthenon , 2004, SIGGRAPH '04.

[127]  Alexei A. Efros,et al.  Webcam clip art: appearance and illuminant transfer from time-lapse sequences , 2009, ACM Trans. Graph..

[128]  Gustavo Patow,et al.  A Survey of Inverse Surface Design From Light Transport Behavior Specification , 2005, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[129]  R. Fisher Dispersion on a sphere , 1953, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[130]  Frank Nagl,et al.  Synthesizing Relative Radiance for Realistic Rendering of Virtual Objects in 3D Photo Collections , 2011, Eurographics.

[131]  Anders Ynnerman,et al.  Free Form Incident Light Fields , 2008, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[132]  Edward H. Adelson,et al.  Ground truth dataset and baseline evaluations for intrinsic image algorithms , 2009, 2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision.

[133]  Hans-Peter Seidel,et al.  Fast Incident Light Field Acquisition and Rendering , 2008, J. WSCG.

[134]  Richard Szeliski,et al.  High dynamic range video , 2003, ACM Trans. Graph..

[135]  S. P. Lloyd,et al.  Least squares quantization in PCM , 1982, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[136]  Romain Pacanowski,et al.  Real-Time Importance Sampling of Dynamic Environment Maps , 2013, Eurographics.

[137]  Wolfgang Heidrich,et al.  Sequential sampling for dynamic environment maps , 2006, SIGGRAPH '06.

[138]  Dieter Schmalstieg,et al.  Efficient and robust radiance transfer for probeless photorealistic augmented reality , 2014, 2014 IEEE Virtual Reality (VR).

[139]  Jan Kautz,et al.  Precomputed radiance transfer for real-time rendering in dynamic, low-frequency lighting environments , 2002 .

[140]  Kenny Mitchell,et al.  Light factorization for mixed-frequency shadows in augmented reality , 2011, 2011 10th IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality.

[141]  Leonidas J. Guibas,et al.  Optimally combining sampling techniques for Monte Carlo rendering , 1995, SIGGRAPH.

[142]  Alexander Keller,et al.  Instant radiosity , 1997, SIGGRAPH.

[143]  Akira Kojima,et al.  Shading derivation from an unspecified object for augmented reality , 2012, Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR2012).

[144]  Céline Loscos,et al.  Classification of Illumination Methods for Mixed Reality , 2006, Comput. Graph. Forum.

[145]  Martin Knecht,et al.  Reciprocal shading for mixed reality , 2012, Comput. Graph..

[146]  Richard Szeliski,et al.  The lumigraph , 1996, SIGGRAPH.

[147]  Andrew Chi-Sing Leung,et al.  Spatiotemporal Sampling of Dynamic Environment Sequences , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics.

[148]  Erik Reinhard,et al.  Image-based material editing , 2005, SIGGRAPH '05.

[149]  Andrew W. Fitzgibbon,et al.  KinectFusion: Real-time dense surface mapping and tracking , 2011, 2011 10th IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality.

[150]  Gregory J. Ward,et al.  A ray tracing solution for diffuse interreflection , 2008, SIGGRAPH '08.

[151]  Anders Ynnerman,et al.  A unified framework for multi-sensor HDR video reconstruction , 2013, Signal Process. Image Commun..

[152]  Parris K. Egbert,et al.  Importance resampling for global illumination , 2005, EGSR '05.

[153]  Simone Gasparini,et al.  Camera Models and Fundamental Concepts Used in Geometric Computer Vision , 2011, Found. Trends Comput. Graph. Vis..

[154]  Greg Humphreys,et al.  Physically Based Rendering: From Theory to Implementation , 2004 .

[155]  Hannes Kaufmann,et al.  High-quality reflections, refractions, and caustics in Augmented Reality and their contribution to visual coherence , 2012, 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR).

[156]  Ned Greene,et al.  Environment Mapping and Other Applications of World Projections , 1986, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[157]  Veronica Sundstedt,et al.  Measuring the perception of light inconsistencies , 2010, APGV '10.

[158]  Miika Aittala,et al.  Inverse lighting and photorealistic rendering for augmented reality , 2010, The Visual Computer.

[159]  Erik Reinhard,et al.  Image-based material editing , 2005, SIGGRAPH '05.

[160]  Mel Slater,et al.  The Influence of Dynamic Shadows on Presence in Immersive Virtual Environments , 1995, Virtual Environments.

[161]  David A. Forsyth,et al.  Rendering synthetic objects into legacy photographs , 2011, ACM Trans. Graph..

[162]  Jaroslav Krivánek,et al.  Real-time shading with filtered importance sampling , 2007, SIGGRAPH '07.

[163]  Erik Reinhard,et al.  High Dynamic Range Imaging: Acquisition, Display, and Image-Based Lighting , 2010 .

[164]  Erik Reinhard,et al.  Color Transfer between Images , 2001, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[165]  Zen-Chung Shih,et al.  All-frequency precomputed radiance transfer using spherical radial basis functions and clustered tensor approximation , 2006, ACM Trans. Graph..

[166]  Werner Hartmann,et al.  A real-time shadow approach for an augmented reality application using shadow volumes , 2003, VRST '03.

[167]  Martin Knecht,et al.  Differential Instant Radiosity for mixed reality , 2010, 2010 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality.

[168]  Marc Levoy,et al.  Light field rendering , 1996, SIGGRAPH.

[169]  H. Jensen Realistic Image Synthesis Using Photon Mapping , 2001 .

[170]  Noah Snavely Photo Tourism : Exploring image collections in 3D , 2006 .

[171]  Karol Myszkowski,et al.  High Dynamic Range Imaging and Low Dynamic Range Expansion for Generating HDR Content , 2009, Eurographics.

[172]  J. Michalsky,et al.  All-weather model for sky luminance distribution—Preliminary configuration and validation , 1993 .

[173]  Tomas Akenine-Möller,et al.  Wavelet importance sampling: efficiently evaluating products of complex functions , 2005, ACM Trans. Graph..